AUCTORES
Globalize your Research
Review Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2692-9392/168
Grodno State Medical University, 80, Gorkogo St., 230009, Grodno, Republic Belarus.
*Corresponding Author: Lizaveta I. Bon, Candidate of biological science, assistant professor of pathophysiology department named D.A. Maslakov, Grodno State Medical University. Belarus.
Citation: Bon E.I, Maksimovich N.Ye and Vishnevskaya L.I, (2023), Septal Region of the Rat's Brain. Ryto- and Rhemoarchitectonics, Archives of Medical Case Reports and Case Study, 7(2); DOI:10.31579/2692-9392/168
Copyright: © 2023, Bon E.I. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 24 February 2023 | Accepted: 02 March 2023 | Published: 09 March 2023
Keywords: septal region; rats; brain
Objective: Analysis and generalization of literature data on the structural organization and neurotransmitters of neurons of different parts of the cerebral cortex of rats.
Methods: For this research, various literature on the relevant topic was collected and analyzed.
Results: Four groups of nuclei are located in the septal region: lateral, medial, caudal and ventral. The neurons forming them are very diverse in their neurotransmitter nature. The nucleus of the septal region forms morphofunctional connections with at least three other brain regions: the hypothalamus, the hippocampus and the amygdala.
Conclusion: The septal region is a complex complex of nuclear structures, the neurons of which are very diverse in their neuromediator nature and form numerous afferent and efferent connections with other parts of the brain. The nuclei of the septal region are involved in a wide range of neuroendocrine, behavioral and cognitive reactions and their further study in normal conditions and in experimental pathology provides a fundamental basis for integrating the results into clinical studies.
The rat is a frequent object of experimental studies, including those related to the study of the structure and function of the brain. Information about the features of the structure and development of various parts of the rat brain creates a fundamental basis for various scientific projects. Some parts of the brain got its name in connection with their shape (hippocampus, amygdala), texture (striatum), localization (paraventricular nuclei) or even colour (black substance), although often at the time when they were discovered, researchers still did not know anything about their cyto- and myeloarchitectonics.
In compliance with this general trend, the medial interventricular septum of the terminal brain was named septum (Latin for "partition, wall"), in humans – septum pellucidum because of transparency [22, 23]. At the turn of the 20th century, several clusters of neuron bodies, in other words nuclei, were isolated in the septal region, and its projection connections with the hippocampus were established [15]. All the nuclei of the septal region have been the subject of very few studies and remain relatively little studied [1,18, 19, 23, 26, 27]. Even the boundaries of the septal region are still being discussed, and the ones presented in this review are based on studies by Swanson L. W. [23] with minor modifications [1, 18].
The aim of this review is to analyze and generalisation the literature data on the development, structure and functions of the septal region of the rat brain for further study in normal and experimental pathology, which will serve to create a fundamental basis for clinical research.
Anatomical organization of the septal area. There are four groups of nuclei in the septal region. The lateral group contains the lateral septal nucleus, septofimbrial and septohippocampal nuclei. The medial septal complex includes the medial central nucleus and the nucleus of the diagonal stripe. The caudal group consists of a triangular nucleus, a nucleus of the anterior commissura and a medullary stripe. Finally, the nucleus of the terminal strip forms a ventral group [20, 23]. Most of the neurons of the nuclei of the septal region form morphofunctional connections with at least three other parts of the brain: the hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala [18, 23].
The development of neurons of the nuclei of the septal region. The nuclei of the septal region develop from the septum formed by the rostroventromedial wall of the terminal brain. In its early stages of embryogenesis, this rudiment lies rostral to the striated and pallidal ridges and ventrally to the rostromedial cortical embryonic neuroepithelium. The nucleus of the terminal strip develops from the anterior part of the ventral angle of the horn of the lateral ventricle. The fusion of the right and left rudiments of the septal region occurs on the 15th day of embryogenesis, then there is an intensive development of the remaining basal nuclei and anterior commissura (17th day of embryogenesis). Most neurons of the septal region are generated from the 12th to the 18th day of prenatal ontogenesis [2].
Neurons of the medial, caudal and ventral groups of nuclei develop earlier (12th-16th day of embryogenesis) than neurons of the lateral septal complex (14th–18th day of embryogenesis).
The spatio-temporal patterns of the genesis of these cell groups are also different. The medial and ventral nuclei extend in the rostral and caudal direction, while the lateral – in the lateral-medial.
The first ascending monoaminergic (serotonergic) filaments from the brainstem enter the septal region from the medial forebrain bundle on the 15th-16th day of embryogenesis. Most afferent fibers (from the hypothalamus and midbrain) develop later (from the 18th day), spreading in the lateral-medial direction [2].
The formation of connections with the hippocampus begins in embryogenesis. It is expected that the cells of the lateral group of nuclei begin to differentiate when the afferents of the hippocampus enter this nucleus. But the development of most catecholaminergic and peptidergic tracts occurs much later (on the 1st–6th day after birth). During this period, there is a decrease in the density of neuronal pericaryons in the lateral nuclei, an increase in cell size, and differentiation of organelles. Synaptic contacts between neurons of various nuclei of the septal region, as well as with the hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus and midbrain reach their full development by the 3rd week of postnatal development [2, 6, 7, 14, 18, 24].
Myelo- and cytoarchitectonics of the septal region nuclei. Myeloarchitectonics. Afferent and efferent fibers of the septal region form four tracts: the arch, the terminal strip, the medial bundle of the forebrain and the medullary strip.
The lateral and medial groups are connected to the hippocampus through the fimbria, the ventral group is connected to the amygdala through the terminal stripe, and the caudal group forms the medullary stripe and arch. All septal nuclei receive abundant afferent inputs from the medial forebrain bundle, and most septal neurons also form efferent fibers. The vental group of nuclei receives afferents from the lateral region of the hypothalamus and the external parts of the pale globe, forms connections with the medial nucleus of the amygdala, ventromedial preoptic, medial preoptic and ventral premamillary nuclei of the hypothalamus. The lateral regions of the nucleus of the terminal strip form synaptic connected with the nuclear structures of the brain stem [6, 7, 18, 23, 24, 25]. Cytoarchitectonics of the lateral group of nuclei of the septal region. The lateral group is the largest cluster of neuron bodies in the septal region. The nuclei are not a homogeneous structure, the neurons in them differ in size. There are areas with different cell densities. Usually, dorsal, intermediate and ventral parts are distinguished in the nuclei of the lateral group, although these boundaries are quite controversial. The dendrites of the neurons of the nuclei of the lateral group have a developed spike apparatus, however, a special class of neurons has been found in the lateral septal nucleus, in which the spikes are located on the cell body itself. Septofimbrial neurons on average have large sizes, compared with other neurons of the nuclei of the lateral group. Axons of some neurons form collaterals, which suggests the presence of local inhibitory influences, but the types of these interneurons have not been established and described [1, 23].
Cytoarchitectonics of the medial group of nuclei of the septal region. The cytoarchitectonic boundaries between the medial septal nucleus and the nucleus of the diagonal stripe are not pronounced, both clusters of neuron bodies are connected by axons of neurons of the nucleus of the diagonal stripe.
Several types of neurons are described in the medial group of nuclei of the septal region. Some of the neurons are large, hyperchromic, while others are small fusiform [18, 20, 23].
Cytoarchitectonics of the caudal group of nuclei of the septal region. The triangular nucleus and the nucleus of the anterior commissura are formed by densely located pericaryons of neurons. The neurons of the medullary stripe are much smaller in size, their cytoplasm is only slightly stained with thionin [15, 20, 23].
Cytoarchitectonics of the ventral group of nuclei of the septal region. There are conflicting data on the histological organization of the terminal strip nucleus. It is proposed to divide the core into several sub-cores. Also, information on the exact topography of afferent and efferent connections between this nucleus and other structures (amygdala, hypothalamus, brain stem) is also ambiguous [6, 7, 23]. The classification of neurons in this area is mainly based not on morphological differences, but on the neurotransmitter nature, which will be described below.
Neurotransmitters of the septal region. The entire septal region is rich in gabaergic neurons that express glutamic acid decarboxylase [29]. However, gabaergic neurons do not form a homogeneous population, and other neurons are found among the nerve cells of the septal region.
Neurotransmitters of the lateral group of nuclei of the septal region. The chemoarchitectonics of the nuclei of the lateral group is extremely heterogeneous. The caudal intermediate part of the lateral septal nucleus is divided into four ventrodorsal oriented layers corresponding to the alternate distribution of calbindine and tyrosine hydroxylase. Using in situ hybridization, it was found that the rostral part of the lateral septal nucleus contains mainly enkephalinergic and neurotensinergic neurons, the caudal part contains somatostatinergic, and the ventral part contains neurons expressing estrogen α. The septohippocampal nucleus contains neurons expressing somatostatin and neuropeptide Y. The septofimbrial nucleus contains enkephalinergic neurons [4, 8, 11, 12].
Neurotransmitters of the medial group of nuclei of the septal region. The medial septal nucleus and diagonal stripe contain a large number of cholinergic neurons. This is a distinctive feature of this group, but chemoarchitectonics as a whole is quite complex. At least three classes of neurons that differ in the type of neurotransmitter produced are described.
1. Cholinergic neurons, which contain the enzymes cholinacetyltransferase and acetylcholinesterase, are the most numerous. In addition, cholinergic neurons contain glutamate, nitric oxide, neuropeptides. The co-expression of these molecules in cholinergic neurons or their possible interactions with acetylcholine are quite complex and not all aspects of their integration have been sufficiently studied.
2. The second group is formed by GABAergic neurons. Most of them synthesize a number of other compounds: calcium-binding proteins, and trophic factors. Some GABAergic neurons may be local interneurons.
3. Neuroendocrine neurons form the third class. They produce glutamate, acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine. Many of these neurons form afferent connections with the hippocampus [3, 4, 8, 11, 12, 13, 17].
Neurotransmitters of the caudal group of nuclei of the septal region. In the nuclei of this group, there is a wide variety of neurons of different neurotransmitter nature.
The triangular nucleus is dominated by neurons expressing calretinin, calbindin and the enzyme adenosine deaminase. Enkephalin is produced by neurons of all nuclei of the caudal group [17].
Afferent fibers from the brain stem are suitable for caudal nuclei. In particular, numerous noradrenergic synapses were found in the nucleus of the anterior commissura. In addition, this nucleus and the triangular nucleus contain cholinergic synapses containing the enzymes cholinacetyltransferase and acetylcholinesterase [4, 8, 11, 12, 13].
Neurotransmitters of the ventral group of nuclei of the septal region. Very intense expression of substance P was noted in the nucleus of the terminal strip, but, moreover, in neurons to estrogens and androgens [10].
Functions of the septal region nuclei. The nuclei of the septal region are involved in a wide range of autonomic, neuroendocrine, behavioral and cognitive reactions [21, 22].
Damage to the lateral group of nuclei leads to significant changes in emotional behavior – the so-called "septal rage". Subsequent experiments made it possible to clarify that the lateral septal nucleus is the main structure responsible for the occurrence of "septal rage" [21, 23].
Damage to the medial group of nuclei causes a number of cognitive disorders (attention and memory disorders), and also leads to desynchronization of the electrical theta activity of the hippocampus associated with memory mechanisms. GABAergic and cholinergic neurons of the medial group of nuclei of the septal region play an important role in synchronizing the bioelectric activity of hippocampal interneurons. Sometimes they are called "hippocampal pacemakers". The septal neurons themselves are under the control of the brain stem [5, 9, 16, 28].
The nuclei of the lateral, medial, caudal and ventral groups participate, including through connections with the hypothalamus, in eating and sexual behavior, the formation of dominant-subordinate relationships and parental attachment to children [21, 22, 23].
That way, the septal region is a complex complex of nuclear structures, the neurons of which are very diverse in their neurotransmitter nature and form numerous afferent and efferent connections with other parts of the brain. The nuclei of the septal region are involved in a wide range of autonomic, neuroendocrine, behavioral and cognitive reactions of the body and their further study in normal and experimental pathology provides a fundamental basis for the implementation of the results in clinical research.
Clearly Auctoresonline and particularly Psychology and Mental Health Care Journal is dedicated to improving health care services for individuals and populations. The editorial boards' ability to efficiently recognize and share the global importance of health literacy with a variety of stakeholders. Auctoresonline publishing platform can be used to facilitate of optimal client-based services and should be added to health care professionals' repertoire of evidence-based health care resources.
Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Intervention The submission and review process was adequate. However I think that the publication total value should have been enlightened in early fases. Thank you for all.
Journal of Women Health Care and Issues By the present mail, I want to say thank to you and tour colleagues for facilitating my published article. Specially thank you for the peer review process, support from the editorial office. I appreciate positively the quality of your journal.
Journal of Clinical Research and Reports I would be very delighted to submit my testimonial regarding the reviewer board and the editorial office. The reviewer board were accurate and helpful regarding any modifications for my manuscript. And the editorial office were very helpful and supportive in contacting and monitoring with any update and offering help. It was my pleasure to contribute with your promising Journal and I am looking forward for more collaboration.
We would like to thank the Journal of Thoracic Disease and Cardiothoracic Surgery because of the services they provided us for our articles. The peer-review process was done in a very excellent time manner, and the opinions of the reviewers helped us to improve our manuscript further. The editorial office had an outstanding correspondence with us and guided us in many ways. During a hard time of the pandemic that is affecting every one of us tremendously, the editorial office helped us make everything easier for publishing scientific work. Hope for a more scientific relationship with your Journal.
The peer-review process which consisted high quality queries on the paper. I did answer six reviewers’ questions and comments before the paper was accepted. The support from the editorial office is excellent.
Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. I had the experience of publishing a research article recently. The whole process was simple from submission to publication. The reviewers made specific and valuable recommendations and corrections that improved the quality of my publication. I strongly recommend this Journal.
Dr. Katarzyna Byczkowska My testimonial covering: "The peer review process is quick and effective. The support from the editorial office is very professional and friendly. Quality of the Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on cardiology that is useful for other professionals in the field.
Thank you most sincerely, with regard to the support you have given in relation to the reviewing process and the processing of my article entitled "Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of The Prostate Gland: A Review and Update" for publication in your esteemed Journal, Journal of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics". The editorial team has been very supportive.
Testimony of Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology: work with your Reviews has been a educational and constructive experience. The editorial office were very helpful and supportive. It was a pleasure to contribute to your Journal.
Dr. Bernard Terkimbi Utoo, I am happy to publish my scientific work in Journal of Women Health Care and Issues (JWHCI). The manuscript submission was seamless and peer review process was top notch. I was amazed that 4 reviewers worked on the manuscript which made it a highly technical, standard and excellent quality paper. I appreciate the format and consideration for the APC as well as the speed of publication. It is my pleasure to continue with this scientific relationship with the esteem JWHCI.
This is an acknowledgment for peer reviewers, editorial board of Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. They show a lot of consideration for us as publishers for our research article “Evaluation of the different factors associated with side effects of COVID-19 vaccination on medical students, Mutah university, Al-Karak, Jordan”, in a very professional and easy way. This journal is one of outstanding medical journal.
Dear Hao Jiang, to Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing We greatly appreciate the efficient, professional and rapid processing of our paper by your team. If there is anything else we should do, please do not hesitate to let us know. On behalf of my co-authors, we would like to express our great appreciation to editor and reviewers.
As an author who has recently published in the journal "Brain and Neurological Disorders". I am delighted to provide a testimonial on the peer review process, editorial office support, and the overall quality of the journal. The peer review process at Brain and Neurological Disorders is rigorous and meticulous, ensuring that only high-quality, evidence-based research is published. The reviewers are experts in their fields, and their comments and suggestions were constructive and helped improve the quality of my manuscript. The review process was timely and efficient, with clear communication from the editorial office at each stage. The support from the editorial office was exceptional throughout the entire process. The editorial staff was responsive, professional, and always willing to help. They provided valuable guidance on formatting, structure, and ethical considerations, making the submission process seamless. Moreover, they kept me informed about the status of my manuscript and provided timely updates, which made the process less stressful. The journal Brain and Neurological Disorders is of the highest quality, with a strong focus on publishing cutting-edge research in the field of neurology. The articles published in this journal are well-researched, rigorously peer-reviewed, and written by experts in the field. The journal maintains high standards, ensuring that readers are provided with the most up-to-date and reliable information on brain and neurological disorders. In conclusion, I had a wonderful experience publishing in Brain and Neurological Disorders. The peer review process was thorough, the editorial office provided exceptional support, and the journal's quality is second to none. I would highly recommend this journal to any researcher working in the field of neurology and brain disorders.
Dear Agrippa Hilda, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, Editorial Coordinator, I trust this message finds you well. I want to extend my appreciation for considering my article for publication in your esteemed journal. I am pleased to provide a testimonial regarding the peer review process and the support received from your editorial office. The peer review process for my paper was carried out in a highly professional and thorough manner. The feedback and comments provided by the authors were constructive and very useful in improving the quality of the manuscript. This rigorous assessment process undoubtedly contributes to the high standards maintained by your journal.
International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. I strongly recommend to consider submitting your work to this high-quality journal. The support and availability of the Editorial staff is outstanding and the review process was both efficient and rigorous.
Thank you very much for publishing my Research Article titled “Comparing Treatment Outcome Of Allergic Rhinitis Patients After Using Fluticasone Nasal Spray And Nasal Douching" in the Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology. As Medical Professionals we are immensely benefited from study of various informative Articles and Papers published in this high quality Journal. I look forward to enriching my knowledge by regular study of the Journal and contribute my future work in the field of ENT through the Journal for use by the medical fraternity. The support from the Editorial office was excellent and very prompt. I also welcome the comments received from the readers of my Research Article.
Dear Erica Kelsey, Editorial Coordinator of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics Our team is very satisfied with the processing of our paper by your journal. That was fast, efficient, rigorous, but without unnecessary complications. We appreciated the very short time between the submission of the paper and its publication on line on your site.
I am very glad to say that the peer review process is very successful and fast and support from the Editorial Office. Therefore, I would like to continue our scientific relationship for a long time. And I especially thank you for your kindly attention towards my article. Have a good day!
"We recently published an article entitled “Influence of beta-Cyclodextrins upon the Degradation of Carbofuran Derivatives under Alkaline Conditions" in the Journal of “Pesticides and Biofertilizers” to show that the cyclodextrins protect the carbamates increasing their half-life time in the presence of basic conditions This will be very helpful to understand carbofuran behaviour in the analytical, agro-environmental and food areas. We greatly appreciated the interaction with the editor and the editorial team; we were particularly well accompanied during the course of the revision process, since all various steps towards publication were short and without delay".
I would like to express my gratitude towards you process of article review and submission. I found this to be very fair and expedient. Your follow up has been excellent. I have many publications in national and international journal and your process has been one of the best so far. Keep up the great work.
We are grateful for this opportunity to provide a glowing recommendation to the Journal of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. We found that the editorial team were very supportive, helpful, kept us abreast of timelines and over all very professional in nature. The peer review process was rigorous, efficient and constructive that really enhanced our article submission. The experience with this journal remains one of our best ever and we look forward to providing future submissions in the near future.
I am very pleased to serve as EBM of the journal, I hope many years of my experience in stem cells can help the journal from one way or another. As we know, stem cells hold great potential for regenerative medicine, which are mostly used to promote the repair response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. I think Stem Cell Research and Therapeutics International is a great platform to publish and share the understanding towards the biology and translational or clinical application of stem cells.
I would like to give my testimony in the support I have got by the peer review process and to support the editorial office where they were of asset to support young author like me to be encouraged to publish their work in your respected journal and globalize and share knowledge across the globe. I really give my great gratitude to your journal and the peer review including the editorial office.
I am delighted to publish our manuscript entitled "A Perspective on Cocaine Induced Stroke - Its Mechanisms and Management" in the Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal are excellent. The manuscripts published are of high quality and of excellent scientific value. I recommend this journal very much to colleagues.
Dr.Tania Muñoz, My experience as researcher and author of a review article in The Journal Clinical Cardiology and Interventions has been very enriching and stimulating. The editorial team is excellent, performs its work with absolute responsibility and delivery. They are proactive, dynamic and receptive to all proposals. Supporting at all times the vast universe of authors who choose them as an option for publication. The team of review specialists, members of the editorial board, are brilliant professionals, with remarkable performance in medical research and scientific methodology. Together they form a frontline team that consolidates the JCCI as a magnificent option for the publication and review of high-level medical articles and broad collective interest. I am honored to be able to share my review article and open to receive all your comments.
“The peer review process of JPMHC is quick and effective. Authors are benefited by good and professional reviewers with huge experience in the field of psychology and mental health. The support from the editorial office is very professional. People to contact to are friendly and happy to help and assist any query authors might have. Quality of the Journal is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on mental health that is useful for other professionals in the field”.
Dear editorial department: On behalf of our team, I hereby certify the reliability and superiority of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews in the peer review process, editorial support, and journal quality. Firstly, the peer review process of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is rigorous, fair, transparent, fast, and of high quality. The editorial department invites experts from relevant fields as anonymous reviewers to review all submitted manuscripts. These experts have rich academic backgrounds and experience, and can accurately evaluate the academic quality, originality, and suitability of manuscripts. The editorial department is committed to ensuring the rigor of the peer review process, while also making every effort to ensure a fast review cycle to meet the needs of authors and the academic community. Secondly, the editorial team of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is composed of a group of senior scholars and professionals with rich experience and professional knowledge in related fields. The editorial department is committed to assisting authors in improving their manuscripts, ensuring their academic accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Editors actively collaborate with authors, providing useful suggestions and feedback to promote the improvement and development of the manuscript. We believe that the support of the editorial department is one of the key factors in ensuring the quality of the journal. Finally, the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is renowned for its high- quality articles and strict academic standards. The editorial department is committed to publishing innovative and academically valuable research results to promote the development and progress of related fields. The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is reasonably priced and ensures excellent service and quality ratio, allowing authors to obtain high-level academic publishing opportunities in an affordable manner. I hereby solemnly declare that the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews has a high level of credibility and superiority in terms of peer review process, editorial support, reasonable fees, and journal quality. Sincerely, Rui Tao.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions I testity the covering of the peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal.
