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Research Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2642-9756/161
1 Emeritus Professor, Obstetrics Gynaecology, Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Sevagram Officer on Special Duty, Dr. Sushila Nayar Hospital, Utavali, Melghat, Amravati Chief Executive Officer, Aakanksha Shishugruha, Sevagram
Kasturba Health Society, Sevagram, Wardha, Maharashtra, India.
2 Associate Professor Obstetrics and Gynecology All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bibinagar-508126 Hyderabad Metropolitan Region, Telangana, India.
3 Nurse Midwife and Research Assistant Dr. Sushila Nayar Hospital, Utavali, Melghat, Amravati.
*Corresponding Author: S. Chhabra, Emeritus Professor, Obstetrics Gynaecology, Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Sevagram Officer on Special Duty, Dr. Sushila Nayar Hospital, Utavali, Melghat, Amravati Chief Executive Officer, Aakanksha Shishugruha, Sevagram Kasturb
Citation: S. Chhabra., Naina Kumar., Tejane. (2023), Physical Violence Against Women of Remote Rural Region: A Community Based Study, J. Women Health Care and Issues. 6(5); DOI:10.31579/2642-9756/161
Copyright: © 2023, S. Chhabra. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 20 July 2023 | Accepted: 27 October 2023 | Published: 09 November 2023
Keywords: domestic violence; injury; physical violence; rural women
Background: Violence against women is major health, social problem globally. Present study was conducted to know the occurrence of physical abuse of women in remote, rural communities. Methodology Community-based cross-sectional analytic study included 2500 randomly selected tribal women between ≥20 to ≤49 years, residing in 140 villages and consenting to participate. A face-to-face interview of study subjects regarding physical violence (PV) suffered at home and workplaces was conducted for 15-20 minutes using semi-structured questionnaire.
Results: Of 2500 women interviewed, majority (57.7%) were 20-29 years old, with lower education (45.3%), laborer (45.4%), and of lower economic class (48.8%). Of all participants, 1511 (60.4%) suffered PV at home, with majority (52.0%) by husbands and 1361 (54.4%) at workplaces with majority by employers (56.6%). At home and work places 25.0% and 37.5% respectively suffered PV on a regular basis. Modes were slapping / hitting / kicking as the most common. OF 1511 women who suffered domestic violence (DV), 86.0% informed about PV to someone, 56.6% of those who suffered PV at workplaces informed someone, only 4.2% to police, compared to 34.8% who suffered DV. Socio-demographic factors like age, education, economic class, and occupation influenced the occurrence of PV. Conclusion: In present study, 60.4% and 52.0% women suffered PV at home and workplaces respectively, common modes of violence were slapping/hitting/kicking. Most (34.8%) women informed to family members after suffering DV and 4.2% of those who suffered PV at workplaces, informed police. It is therefore necessary to generate awareness, formulate laws and policies for protection of women against PV at home and work places.
Abuse of women is widely recognized as a public health concern globally. Violence against women (VAW) is a major health and social problem that affects women worldwide in all the societies, but often remains unrecognized and underreported, [1] sometimes accepted as part of normal behaviour in many countries. [2] VAW is defined by the United Nations as “any act of gender-based violence (GBV) that leads to, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or mental trauma or suffering to women, and also includes threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, either in public or in private life.”3 Most VA whappens within families and the perpetrators are mostly men who are or have been in an intimate relationship with the woman.4It has been estimated that globally around one in three women beyond 15 years of age suffer from physical violence (PV) and/or sexual violence (SV) from an intimate partner (IP) during their lifetime. [5] Violence significantly affects women’s physical, mental, sexual, and reproductive health leading to many unremovable scars on their lives. [1] Despite such impact of VAW on mental and physical health, the information about the exact prevalence of VAW by partners, and families is scarce [4] especially community-based studies amongst rural women.
Community based study to know about PV against women of remote rural communities.
Material and Methods
Study design: Cross-sectional analytic study.
Study setting and duration: The study was conducted in a total of 140 tribal villages in remote rural, forestry, and hilly region over a period of one year. These villages were around the village with the health facility, the study center.
Inclusion criteria: - Randomly 15 women, between ≥20 to ≤49 years of age selected from each village and willing to undergo a personal interview were enrolled as study participants, considering some villages were small and some large.
Exclusion criteria: - Pregnant women were not included.
Sample size: - Calculated sample size was 2500 with 95% confidence and 2
Of all the women interviewed, majority (57.7%) belonged to the 20-29 years of age, educated up to primary level (45.3%), laborer by occupation (45.4%), and belonged to lower economic class (48.8%). Most of them had births, one or two children (57.8%). Of the total 2500 participants, 1511 (60.4%) suffered PV at home with 785 (52.0%) by their husbands, 260 (17.2%) father-in-law or brother-in-law, 385 (25.5) mother-in-law or sister-in-law and the remaining 81 (5.4%) by close friends or distant relatives. Of 1511 participants who suffered PV at home, the majority were young (60.9%), with low education (46.4%), agricultural labourer (46.3%), and belonged to a lower economic class (55.6%), (p<0>Variables Total Physical Violence Age (years) Yes % Perpetrator Husband % Father-In-Law / Brother-in-Law % Mother-In-Law/ Sister-in-Law % Others % 20 To 29 1442 921 63.9 520 56.5 135 14.7 200 21.7 66 7.2 30 To 39 605 400 66.1 155 38.8 100 25.0 135 33.8 10 2.5 40 To 49 453 190 41.9 110 57.9 25 13.2 50 26.3 5 2.6 Total 2500 1511 60.4 785 52.0 260 17.2 385 25.5 81 5.4 Education Illiterate 717 525 73.2 240 45.7 90 17.1 172 32.8 23 4.4 Primary 1133 701 61.9 381 54.4 125 17.8 150 21.4 45 6.4 Secondary 430 240 55.8 135 56.3 40 16.7 55 22.9 10 4.2 Higher Secondary 150 25 16.7 15 60.0 3 12.0 5 20.0 2 8.0 Graduate 55 15 27.3 9 60.0 2 13.3 3 20.0 1 6.7 Post Graduate/ Professional 15 5 33.3 5 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Total 2500 1511 60.4 785 52.0 260 17.2 385 25.5 81 5.4 Profession Home Maker 720 435 60.4 195 44.8 90 20.7 120 27.6 30 6.9 Farm Laborer 1136 700 61.6 426 60.9 89 12.7 145 20.7 40 5.7 Other Work Laborer 564 358 63.5 149 41.6 80 22.3 119 33.2 10 2.8 Shop Keeper 80 18 22.5 15 83.3 1 5.6 1 5.6 1 5.6 Total 2500 1511 60.4 785 52.0 260 17.2 385 25.5 81 5.4 Socio-economic Status Upper 75 20 26.7 13 65.0 1 5.0 5 25.0 1 5.0 Upper Middle 105 42 40.0 19 45.2 5 11.9 16 38.1 2 4.8 Middle 405 154 38.0 90 58.4 20 13.0 35 22.7 9 5.8 Lower Middle 695 455 65.5 197 43.3 89 19.6 145 31.9 24 5.3 Lower 1220 840 68.9 466 55.5 145 17.3 184 21.9 45 5.4 Total 2500 1511 60.4 785 52.0 260 17.2 385 25.5 81 5.4 Parity P 0 205 95 46.3 45 47.4 10 10.5 35 36.8 5 5.3 P 1 - P2 1445 986 68.2 528 53.5 170 17.2 240 24.3 48 4.9 P 3 - P 5 Above 850 430 50.6 212 49.3 80 18.6 110 25.6 28 6.5 Total 2500 1511 60.4 785 52.0 260 17.2 385 25.5 81 5.4
*Small Scale, (Food, Shoes making, Bamboo items) Industry, Welding Workshop, Brick furna
Table I: Correlation of demographic features with Physical violence suffered at Home
Furthermore, women between 20-29 years of age were found to be at maximum risk of both DV and PV at workplaces (p<0>
common mode of DV suffered was slapping or hitting body parts and or kicking (66.3%), hitting with metal rods, bars, or burning (24.8%), and the remaining 135 (8.9%) women reported being hit by other things like brooms, shoes/chappals, utensils, etc. as shown in table II (Table II).
| Variables | Total | Physical Violence | Frequency | Mode of Violence | ||||||||||
| Age (years) | Yes | % | Once/Rare | % | Regular | % | Slap / Hitting / Kicking | % | Bar / Rod / Burns | % | Others | % | ||
| 20 To 29 | 1442 | 921 | 63.9 | 691 | 75.0 | 230 | 25.0 | 632 | 68.6 | 209 | 22.7 | 80 | 8.7 | |
| 30 To 39 | 605 | 400 | 66.1 | 300 | 75.0 | 100 | 25.0 | 235 | 58.8 | 120 | 30.0 | 45 | 11.3 | |
| 40 To 49 | 453 | 190 | 41.9 | 143 | 75.3 | 47 | 24.7 | 135 | 71.1 | 45 | 23.7 | 10 | 5.3 | |
| Total | 2500 | 1511 | 60.4 | 1134 | 75.0 | 377 | 25.0 | 1002 | 66.3 | 374 | 24.8 | 135 | 8.9 | |
| Education | ||||||||||||||
| Illiterate | 717 | 525 | 73.2 | 394 | 75.0 | 131 | 25.0 | 305 | 58.1 | 180 | 34.3 | 40 | 7.6 | |
| Primary | 1133 | 701 | 61.9 | 525 | 74.9 | 176 | 25.1 | 487 | 69.5 | 149 | 21.3 | 65 | 9.3 | |
| Secondary | 430 | 240 | 55.8 | 180 | 75.0 | 60 | 25.0 | 165 | 68.8 | 45 | 18.8 | 30 | 12.5 | |
| Higher Secondary | 150 | 25 | 16.7 | 19 | 76.0 | 6 | 24.0 | 25 | 100.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | |
| Graduate | 55 | 15 | 27.3 | 12 | 80.0 | 3 | 20.0 | 15 | 100.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | |
| Post Graduate/ Professional | 15 | 5 | 33.3 | 4 | 80.0 | 1 | 20.0 | 5 | 100.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | |
| Total | 2500 | 1511 | 60.4 | 1134 | 75.0 | 377 | 25.0 | 1002 | 66.3 | 374 | 24.8 | 135 | 8.9 | |
| Profession | ||||||||||||||
| Home Maker | 720 | 435 | 60.4 | 326 | 74.9 | 109 | 25.1 | 220 | 50.6 | 170 | 39.1 | 45 | 10.3 | |
| Farm Laborer | 1136 | 700 | 61.6 | 525 | 75.0 | 175 | 25.0 | 481 | 68.7 | 159 | 22.7 | 60 | 8.6 | |
| Other Work Laborer* | 564 | 358 | 63.5 | 269 | 75.1 | 89 | 24.9 | 283 | 79.1 | 45 | 12.6 | 30 | 8.4 | |
| Shop Keeper | 80 | 18 | 22.5 | 14 | 77.8 | 4 | 22.2 | 18 | 100.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | |
| Total | 2500 | 1511 | 60.4 | 1134 | 75.0 | 377 | 25.0 | 1002 | 66.3 | 374 | 24.8 | 135 | 8.9 | |
| Socio-economic Status | ||||||||||||||
| Upper | 75 | 20 | 26.7 | 15 | 75.0 | 5 | 25.0 | 18 | 90.0 | 1 | 5.0 | 1 | 5.0 | |
| Upper Middle | 105 | 42 | 40.0 | 32 | 76.2 | 10 | 23.8 | 39 | 92.9 | 2 | 4.8 | 1 | 2.4 | |
| Middle | 405 | 154 | 38.0 | 116 | 75.3 | 38 | 24.7 | 82 | 53.2 | 42 | 27.3 | 30 | 19.5 | |
| Lower Middle | 695 | 455 | 65.5 | 342 | 75.2 | 113 | 24.8 | 226 | 49.7 | 170 | 37.4 | 59 | 13.0 | |
| Lower | 1220 | 840 | 68.9 | 629 | 74.9 | 211 | 25.1 | 637 | 75.8 | 159 | 18.9 | 44 | 5.2 | |
| Total | 2500 | 1511 | 60.4 | 1134 | 75.0 | 377 | 25.0 | 1002 | 66.3 | 374 | 24.8 | 135 | 8.9 | |
| Parity | ||||||||||||||
| P 0 | 205 | 95 | 46.3 | 72 | 75.8 | 23 | 24.2 | 21 | 22.1 | 43 | 45.3 | 31 | 32.6 | |
| P 1 - P2 | 1445 | 986 | 68.2 | 740 | 75.1 | 246 | 24.9 | 756 | 76.7 | 171 | 17.3 | 59 | 6.0 | |
| P 3 - P 5 Above | 850 | 430 | 50.6 | 322 | 74.9 | 108 | 25.1 | 225 | 52.3 | 160 | 37.2 | 45 | 10.5 | |
| Total | 2500 | 1511 | 60.4 | 1134 | 75.0 | 377 | 25.0 | 1002 | 66.3 | 374 | 24.8 | 135 | 8.9 | |
*Small Scale, (Food, Shoes making, Bamboo items) Industry, Welding Workshop, Brick furnac
Table II: Mode and Frequency of Physical violence at home
Of all the women who suffered DV, 1300 (86.0%) informed someone, including family members (54.6%), police (34.8%), and others like neighbors, friends, and distant relatives (10.5%) (Table III).
Of these 1511 women, 1424 (94.2%) sought health-related help, 64.0% from Subcenters (SC) or Primary Health Centers (PHC), 26.5% from Sub-district hospital (SDH)/District hospital (DH), and remaining 9.5% from private hospitals or dispensaries. The relationship of the health care sought for PV suffered at home and demographic factors is shown in table IV (Table IV).
| Variables | Total | Health care sought and place | |||||||
| Age (years) | Yes | % | *SC / **PHC | % | ***SDH / ****DH | % | Others | % | |
| 20 To 29 | 1442 | 862 | 59.8 | 572 | 66.4 | 210 | 24.4 | 80 | 9.3 |
| 30 To 39 | 605 | 381 | 63.0 | 215 | 56.4 | 121 | 31.8 | 45 | 11.8 |
| 40 To 49 | 453 | 181 | 40.0 | 125 | 69.1 | 46 | 25.4 | 10 | 5.5 |
| Total | 2500 | 1424 | 57.0 | 912 | 64.0 | 377 | 26.5 | 135 | 9.5 |
| Education | |||||||||
| Illiterate | 717 | 436 | 60.8 | 216 | 49.5 | 180 | 41.3 | 40 | 9.2 |
| Primary | 1133 | 675 | 59.6 | 461 | 68.3 | 149 | 22.1 | 65 | 9.6 |
| Secondary | 430 | 271 | 63.0 | 196 | 72.3 | 45 | 16.6 | 30 | 11.1 |
| Higher Secondary | 150 | 25 | 16.7 | 24 | 96.0 | 1 | 4.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Graduate | 55 | 15 | 27.3 | 14 | 93.3 | 1 | 6.7 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Post Graduate/ Professional | 15 | 2 | 13.3 | 1 | 50.0 | 1 | 50.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Total | 2500 | 1424 | 57.0 | 912 | 64.0 | 377 | 26.5 | 135 | 9.5 |
| Profession | |||||||||
| Home Maker | 720 | 272 | 37.8 | 57 | 21.0 | 170 | 62.5 | 45 | 16.5 |
| Farm Labourer | 1136 | 771 | 67.9 | 552 | 71.6 | 159 | 20.6 | 60 | 7.8 |
| Other Work Labour | 564 | 325 | 57.6 | 250 | 76.9 | 45 | 13.8 | 30 | 9.2 |
| Shop Keeper | 80 | 56 | 70.0 | 53 | 94.6 | 3 | 5.4 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Total | 2500 | 1424 | 57.0 | 912 | 64.0 | 377 | 26.5 | 135 | 9.5 |
| Economic Status | |||||||||
| Upper Class | 75 | 68 | 90.7 | 63 | 92.6 | 4 | 5.9 | 1 | 1.5 |
| Upper Middle Class | 105 | 63 | 60.0 | 60 | 95.2 | 2 | 3.2 | 1 | 1.6 |
| Middle Class | 405 | 251 | 62.0 | 179 | 71.3 | 42 | 16.7 | 30 | 12.0 |
| Lower Middle Class | 695 | 395 | 56.8 | 166 | 42.0 | 170 | 43.0 | 59 | 14.9 |
| Lower Class | 1220 | 647 | 53.0 | 444 | 68.6 | 159 | 24.6 | 44 | 6.8 |
| Total | 2500 | 1424 | 57.0 | 912 | 64.0 | 377 | 26.5 | 135 | 9.5 |
| Parity | |||||||||
| P 0 | 205 | 95 | 46.3 | 20 | 21.1 | 44 | 46.3 | 31 | 32.6 |
| P 1- P2 | 1445 | 836 | 57.9 | 605 | 72.4 | 172 | 20.6 | 59 | 7.1 |
| P 3-P5 Above | 850 | 493 | 58.0 | 287 | 58.2 | 161 | 32.7 | 45 | 9.1 |
| Total | 2500 | 1424 | 57.0 | 912 | 64.0 | 377 | 26.5 | 135 | 9.5 |
*Small Scale, (Food, Shoes making, Bamboo items) Industry, Welding Workshop, Brick furnace
*SC – Subcentre **PHC – Primary Health Care
****DH – District Hospital ***SDH – Sub District Hospital
Table IV: Health Care Sought against Physical Violence Suffered at Home
Similarly, of 785 women who suffered PV from their husbands, 404(51.5%) informed their family members, 238 (30.3%) informed friends, 56 (7.1%) police and the remaining 87 (11.1%) informed others like neighbors, distant relatives, etc. Of these 785 women, 399 (50.8%) sought health services from SC/PHC, 239(30.4%) from SDH/DH and the remaining 147 (18.7%) sought care from private hospitals or dispensaries after DV by husbands. Of the total 2500 women, 1361 (54.4%) suffered PV at the work places by employers (56.6%), colleagues (33.3%), and others (10.1%), as shown in table V (Table V).
| Variables | Total | Physical Violence | |||||||
| Age (years) | Yes | % | Perpetrator | ||||||
| Employer | % | Colleague | % | Others | % | ||||
| 20 To 29 | 1442 | 841 | 58.3 | 471 | 56.0 | 280 | 33.3 | 90 | 10.7 |
| 30 To 39 | 605 | 360 | 59.5 | 200 | 55.6 | 120 | 33.3 | 40 | 11.1 |
| 40 To 49 | 453 | 160 | 35.3 | 100 | 62.5 | 53 | 33.1 | 7 | 4.4 |
| Total | 2500 | 1361 | 54.4 | 771 | 56.6 | 453 | 33.3 | 137 | 10.1 |
| Education | |||||||||
| Illiterate | 717 | 415 | 57.9 | 230 | 55.4 | 138 | 33.3 | 47 | 11.3 |
| Primary | 1133 | 654 | 57.7 | 376 | 57.5 | 218 | 33.3 | 60 | 9.2 |
| Secondary | 430 | 250 | 58.1 | 131 | 52.4 | 90 | 36.0 | 29 | 11.6 |
| Higher Secondary | 150 | 25 | 16.7 | 19 | 76.0 | 5 | 20.0 | 1 | 4.0 |
| Graduate | 55 | 15 | 27.3 | 13 | 86.7 | 2 | 13.3 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Post Graduate/ Professional | 15 | 2 | 13.3 | 2 | 100.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Total | 2500 | 1361 | 54.4 | 771 | 56.6 | 453 | 33.3 | 137 | 10.1 |
| Profession | |||||||||
| Home Maker | |||||||||
| Farm Laborer | 1856 | 1070 | 57.7 | 601 | 56.2 | 353 | 33.0 | 116 | 10.8 |
| Other Work Laborer* | 564 | 285 | 50.5 | 165 | 57.9 | 100 | 35.1 | 20 | 7.0 |
| Shop Keeper | 80 | 6 | 7.5 | 5 | 83.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 1 | 16.7 |
| Total | 2500 | 1361 | 54.4 | 771 | 56.6 | 453 | 33.3 | 137 | 10.1 |
| Socio-economic Status | |||||||||
| Upper | 75 | 7 | 9.3 | 5 | 71.4 | 2 | 28.6 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Upper Middle | 105 | 42 | 40.0 | 29 | 69.0 | 10 | 23.8 | 3 | 7.1 |
| Middle | 405 | 251 | 62.0 | 131 | 52.2 | 110 | 43.8 | 10 | 4.0 |
| Lower Middle | 695 | 390 | 56.1 | 220 | 56.4 | 145 | 37.2 | 25 | 6.4 |
| Lower | 1220 | 671 | 55.0 | 386 | 57.5 | 186 | 27.7 | 99 | 14.8 |
| Total | 2500 | 1361 | 54.4 | 771 | 56.6 | 453 | 33.3 | 137 | 10.1 |
| Parity | |||||||||
| P 0 | 205 | 95 | 46.3 | 50 | 52.6 | 35 | 36.8 | 10 | 10.5 |
| P 1- P2 | 1445 | 836 | 57.9 | 451 | 53.9 | 303 | 36.2 | 82 | 9.8 |
| P 3-P5 Above | 850 | 430 | 50.6 | 270 | 62.8 | 115 | 26.7 | 45 | 10.5 |
| Total | 2500 | 1361 | 54.4 | 771 | 56.6 | 453 | 33.3 | 137 | 10.1 |
*Small Scale, (Food, Shoes making, Bamboo items) Industry, Welding Workshop, Brick furnace
Table V: Correlation of demographic features with Physical violence suffered at Workplaces
Similar to DV, women between 20-29 years of age, with low levels of education, belonging to lower socio-economic status and labourer were prone to PV at workplaces (p<0>Variables Total Physical Violence Frequency Mode of Violence Age (years) Yes % Once/Rare % Regular % Slap / Hitting / Kicking % Bar / Rod/Sticks % Others % 20 To 29 1442 841 58.3 521 62.0 320 38.0 552 65.6 209 24.9 80 9.5 30 To 39 605 360 59.5 215 59.7 145 40.3 195 54.2 120 33.3 45 12.5 40 To 49 453 160 35.3 115 71.9 45 28.1 105 65.6 45 28.1 10 6.3 Total 2500 1361 54.4 851 62.5 510 37.5 852 62.6 374 27.5 135 9.9 Education Illiterate 717 415 57.9 295 71.1 120 28.9 195 47.0 180 43.4 40 9.6 Primary 1133 654 57.7 367 56.1 287 43.9 440 67.3 149 22.8 65 9.9 Secondary 430 250 58.1 150 60.0 100 40.0 175 70.0 45 18.0 30 12.0 Higher Secondary 150 25 16.7 23 92.0 2 8.0 25 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Graduate 55 15 27.3 14 93.3 1 6.7 15 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Post Graduate/ Professional 15 2 13.3 2 100.0 0 0.0 2 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Total 2500 1361 54.4 851 62.5 510 37.5 852 62.6 374 27.5 135 9.9 Profession Home Maker Farm Laborer 1856 1070 57.7 655 61.2 415 38.8 851 79.5 159 14.9 60 5.6 Other Work Laborer* 564 285 50.5 190 66.7 95 33.3 210 73.7 45 15.8 30 10.5 Shop Keeper 80 6 7.5 6 100.0 0 0.0 6 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Total 2500 1361 54.4 851 62.5 510 37.5 1067 78.4 204 15.0 90 6.6 Socio-economic Status Upper 75 7 9.3 7 100.0 0 0.0 5 71.4 1 14.3 1 14.3 Upper Middle 105 42 40.0 32 76.2 10 23.8 39 92.9 2 4.8 1 2.4 Middle 405 251 62.0 181 72.1 70 27.9 179 71.3 42 16.7 30 12.0 Lower Middle 695 390 56.1 245 62.8 145 37.2 161 41.3 170 43.6 59 15.1 Lower 1220 671 55.0 386 57.5 285 42.5 468 69.7 159 23.7 44 6.6 Total 2500 1361 54.4 851 62.5 510 37.5 852 62.6 374 27.5 135 9.9 Parity P 0 205 95 46.3 90 94.7 5 5.3 21 22.1 43 45.3 31 32.6 P 1- P2 1445 836 57.9 491 58.7 345 41.3 606 72.5 171 20.5 59 7.1 P 3-P5 Above 850 430 50.6 270 62.8 160 37.2 225 52.3 160 37.2 45 10.5 Total 2500 1361 54.4 851 62.5 510 37.5 852 62.6 374 27.5 135 9.9
*Small Scale, (Food, Shoes making, Bamboo items) Industry, Welding Workshop, Brick furnace
Table VI: Mode and Frequency of Physical Violence at Workplaces
Of the 1361 women who suffered PV at their workplaces, only 56.6% informed someone about the incident, 39.9% to family members, 16.1% to friends, 16.0% to colleagues, 13.2% to their workplace superiors, 4.2% informed police and the remaining 10.6% informed other people working as shown in table VII (Table VII).
| Variables | Total | Informed someone about violence at the workplace | |||||||||||||
| Employer | % | If yes, to whom | |||||||||||||
| Age (years) | Family Member | % | Friend | % | Colleague | % | Workplace superior | % | police | % | Others | % | |||
| 20 To 29 | 1442 | 471 | 32.7 | 198 | 42.0 | 65 | 13.8 | 75 | 15.9 | 65 | 13.8 | 12 | 2.5 | 56 | 11.9 |
| 30 To 39 | 605 | 200 | 33.1 | 98 | 49.0 | 32 | 16.0 | 29 | 14.5 | 28 | 14.0 | 8 | 4.0 | 5 | 2.5 |
| 40 To 49 | 453 | 100 | 22.1 | 12 | 12.0 | 27 | 27.0 | 19 | 19.0 | 9 | 9.0 | 12 | 12.0 | 21 | 21.0 |
| Total | 2500 | 771 | 30.8 | 308 | 39.9 | 124 | 16.1 | 123 | 16.0 | 102 | 13.2 | 32 | 4.2 | 82 | 10.6 |
| Education | |||||||||||||||
| Illiterate | 717 | 230 | 32.1 | 98 | 42.6 | 35 | 15.2 | 26 | 11.3 | 25 | 10.9 | 15 | 6.5 | 31 | 13.5 |
| Primary | 1133 | 376 | 33.2 | 168 | 44.7 | 54 | 14.4 | 73 | 19.4 | 41 | 10.9 | 10 | 2.7 | 30 | 8.0 |
| Secondary | 430 | 131 | 30.5 | 37 | 28.2 | 24 | 18.3 | 21 | 16.0 | 28 | 21.4 | 4 | 3.1 | 17 | 13.0 |
| Higher Secondary | 150 | 19 | 12.7 | 5 | 26.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 3 | 15.8 | 8 | 42.1 | 0 | 0.0 | 3 | 15.8 |
| Graduate | 55 | 13 | 23.6 | 0 | 0.0 | 9 | 69.2 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 3 | 23.1 | 1 | 7.7 |
| Post Graduate/ Professional | 15 | 2 | 13.3 | 0 | 0.0 | 2 | 100.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Total | 2500 | 771 | 30.8 | 308 | 39.9 | 124 | 16.1 | 123 | 16.0 | 102 | 13.2 | 32 | 4.2 | 82 | 10.6 |
| Profession | |||||||||||||||
| Home Maker | |||||||||||||||
| Farm Labourer | 1856 | 601 | 32.4 | 274 | 45.6 | 108 | 18.0 | 89 | 14.8 | 59 | 9.8 | 22 | 3.7 | 49 | 8.2 |
| Other Work Labourer* | 564 | 165 | 29.3 | 29 | 17.6 | 16 | 9.7 | 34 | 20.6 | 43 | 26.1 | 10 | 6.1 | 33 | 20.0 |
| Shop Keeper | 80 | 5 | 6.3 | 5 | 100.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Total | 2500 | 771 | 30.8 | 308 | 39.9 | 124 | 16.1 | 123 | 16.0 | 102 | 13.2 | 32 | 4.2 | 82 | 10.6 |
| Economic Status | |||||||||||||||
| Upper Class | 75 | 5 | 6.7 | 5 | 100.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Upper Middle Class | 105 | 29 | 27.6 | 17 | 58.6 | 0 | 0.0 | 3 | 10.3 | 4 | 13.8 | 2 | 6.9 | 3 | 10.3 |
| Middle Class | 405 | 131 | 32.3 | 21 | 16.0 | 29 | 22.1 | 19 | 14.5 | 18 | 13.7 | 4 | 3.1 | 40 | 30.5 |
| Lower Middle Class | 695 | 220 | 31.7 | 53 | 24.1 | 40 | 18.2 | 59 | 26.8 | 30 | 13.6 | 11 | 5.0 | 27 | 12.3 |
| Lower Class | 1220 | 386 | 31.6 | 212 | 54.9 | 48 | 12.4 | 42 | 10.9 | 50 | 13.0 | 15 | 3.9 | 19 | 4.9 |
| Total | 2500 | 771 | 30.8 | 308 | 39.9 | 124 | 16.1 | 123 | 16.0 | 102 | 13.2 | 32 | 4.2 | 82 | 10.6 |
| Parity | |||||||||||||||
| P 0 | 205 | 50 | 24.4 | 12 | 24.0 | 18 | 36.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 15 | 30.0 | 5 | 10.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
| P 1- P2 | 1445 | 451 | 31.2 | 221 | 49.0 | 49 | 10.9 | 68 | 15.1 | 55 | 12.2 | 15 | 3.3 | 43 | 9.5 |
| P 3-P5 Above | 850 | 270 | 31.8 | 75 | 27.8 | 57 | 21.1 | 55 | 20.4 | 32 | 11.9 | 12 | 4.4 | 39 | 14.4 |
| Total | 2500 | 771 | 30.8 | 308 | 39.9 | 124 | 16.1 | 123 | 16.0 | 102 | 13.2 | 32 | 4.2 | 82 | 10.6 |
*Small Scale, (Food, Shoes making, Bamboo items) Industry, Welding Workshop, Brick furnace
Table VII: Action taken for Physical Violence at Workplaces
Of these 771 women, 45.9% sought help from SC/PHC, 34.0% from SDH/DH, and the remaining 20.1% from other places like private hospitals or dispensaries. The correlation of the healthcare sought for PV with various demographic features is shown in table VIII (Table VIII).
| Variables | Total | Healthcare Sought against Physical Violence at Workplaces | |||||||
| Age (years) | Yes | % | If yes, where | ||||||
| *SC / **PHC | % | ***SDH /**** DH | % | Others | % | ||||
| 20 To 29 | 1442 | 471 | 32.7 | 212 | 45.0 | 136 | 28.9 | 123 | 26.1 |
| 30 To 39 | 605 | 200 | 33.1 | 88 | 44.0 | 94 | 47.0 | 18 | 9.0 |
| 40 To 49 | 453 | 100 | 22.1 | 54 | 54.0 | 32 | 32.0 | 14 | 14.0 |
| Total | 2500 | 771 | 30.8 | 354 | 45.9 | 262 | 34.0 | 155 | 20.1 |
| Education | |||||||||
| Illiterate | 717 | 230 | 32.1 | 149 | 64.8 | 45 | 19.6 | 36 | 15.7 |
| Primary | 1133 | 376 | 33.2 | 160 | 42.6 | 153 | 40.7 | 63 | 16.8 |
| Secondary | 430 | 131 | 30.5 | 32 | 24.4 | 54 | 41.2 | 45 | 34.4 |
| Higher Secondary | 150 | 19 | 12.7 | 7 | 36.8 | 6 | 31.6 | 6 | 31.6 |
| Graduate | 55 | 13 | 23.6 | 5 | 38.5 | 3 | 23.1 | 5 | 38.5 |
| Post Graduate/ Professional | 15 | 2 | 13.3 | 1 | 50.0 | 1 | 50.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Total | 2500 | 771 | 30.8 | 354 | 45.9 | 262 | 34.0 | 155 | 20.1 |
| Profession | |||||||||
| Home Maker | |||||||||
| Farm Labourer | 1856 | 601 | 52.9 | 260 | 43.3 | 233 | 38.8 | 108 | 18.0 |
| Other Work Labourer* | 564 | 165 | 29.3 | 89 | 53.9 | 29 | 17.6 | 47 | 28.5 |
| Shop Keeper | 80 | 5 | 6.3 | 5 | 100.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Total | 2500 | 771 | 30.8 | 354 | 45.9 | 262 | 34.0 | 155 | 20.1 |
| Economic Status | |||||||||
| Upper Class | 75 | 5 | 6.7 | 0 | 0.0 | 5 | 100.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Upper Middle Class | 105 | 29 | 27.6 | 10 | 34.5 | 6 | 20.7 | 13 | 44.8 |
| Middle Class | 405 | 131 | 32.3 | 44 | 33.6 | 42 | 32.1 | 45 | 34.4 |
| Lower Middle Class | 695 | 220 | 31.7 | 102 | 46.4 | 71 | 32.3 | 47 | 21.4 |
| Lower Class | 1220 | 386 | 31.6 | 198 | 51.3 | 138 | 35.8 | 50 | 13.0 |
| Total | 2500 | 771 | 30.8 | 354 | 45.9 | 262 | 34.0 | 155 | 20.1 |
| Parity | |||||||||
| P 0 | 205 | 50 | 24.4 | 20 | 40.0 | 12 | 24.0 | 18 | 36.0 |
| P 1- P2 | 1445 | 451 | 31.2 | 232 | 51.4 | 96 | 21.3 | 123 | 27.3 |
| P 3-P5 Above | 850 | 270 | 31.8 | 102 | 37.8 | 154 | 57.0 | 14 | 5.2 |
| Total | 2500 | 771 | 30.8 | 354 | 45.9 | 262 | 34.0 | 155 | 20.1 |
*Small Scale, (Food, Shoes making, Bamboo items) Industry, Welding Workshop, Brick furnace
*SC – Subcentre **PHC – Primary Health Care
****DH – District Hospital ***SDH – Sub District Hospital
Table VIII: Health Care Sought for Physical Violence at Workplaces
Overall, in the present study of 2500 women interviewed, 60.4%of women suffered PV at home with the majority (52.0%) by their husbands and 1361 (54.4%) women suffered PV at workplaces also with the majority (56.6%) by employers. A significant correlation was reported between young age, lower education levels, labor occupation, and low economic class of women with PV suffered at home and at workplaces (p<0>
VAW remains a major public health concern all over the world.7 It usually results from factors occurring at the individual, family, community, and wider society levels that lead to increased risk. Some of these factors include lower education, witnessing family violence, antisocial behavior, alcohol/drug abuse, community norms that provide higher status to men.VAW leads to serious short- and long-term impacts on women’s health and hence, should be condemned worldwide.1 According to an Indian study, DV among Indian communities is a universal phenomenon and is usually unreported. The overall prevalence of DV in India alone varies from 18% to 70%, and these figures represent only the tip of the iceberg as most of the cases remain undocumented. [8,9], A multi-country study by the World Health Organization (WHO) on women’s health and household violence revealed that the lifetime risk of physical abuse (PA), sexual abuse (SA), or both, varied between 15% to 71% in 10 countries.10 Furthermore, the variables that were commonly found to be linked with VAW included young age, teenage marriage, low literacy levels, and, husband’s addiction to alcohol, and drugs.11 VAW is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into subordinate positions
The present community-based study was conducted to know the burden and consequences of PV suffered by women in remote rural communities with extreme poverty. Young women between 20-29 years, with less education, agricultural laborers, with births and belonging to low economic class suffered PV more often at home by their husbands, and also at the workplaces by their employers. Of 2500 women interviewed, 60.4% suffered DV with the majority (52.0%) by their husbands, and 1361 (54.4%) women suffered PV at workplaces with the majority (56.6%) by employers. The most common mode of PV suffered at home and workplaces was slapping or hitting body parts and / kicking. Majority of women who suffered PV at home or workplaces informed their family members about the incident. It was observed that 34.8% of those who suffered DV informed the police, but only 7.1% reported to police after DV by husbands and 4.2% by those who suffered PV at workplaces by employers. Furthermore, 94.2% women who suffered DV sought healthcare from SC / PHC / SDH / DH / private dispensaries or clinics, compared to 56.6% women who suffered PV at workplaces. Of 52.0% women who suffered DV from husbands, 50.8% sought healthcare from SC/PHC, 30.4% from SDH/DH and the remaining 18.7% from private hospitals or dispensaries. A similar study was conducted to explore the determinants of violence in rural areas of Bangladesh which revealed that higher education, higher socioeconomic status, non-Muslim religion, and extended family residence were found to be associated with lower risks of VAW.12A study from Eastern India also revealed that the overall prevalence of physical, psychological, sexual, and any form of VAW were 16%, 52%, 25%, and 56% respectively with husbands responsible for the majority of the cases and in some cases the involvement of husband’s parents was also reported. It was also observed that socio economic characteristics of women like urban residence, lower education, older age, and lower family income were associated with increased risk of DV.13 Similar study was conducted in the USA to know the physical and mental health impacts of intimate partner violence (IPV) on women and reported that 28.9% of women experienced physical, sexual, or psychological IPV during their lifetime. They also observed that IPV was associated with an increased risk of poor health, depressive symptoms, and substance abuse among women and resulted in chronic diseases, chronic mental illness, and injuries.14 Furthermore, a study from Nigeria reported that according to section 282 of the Nigerian Penal Code men could beat their wives whenever they felt necessary and hence such PV allowed by the court was often viewed as a family issue, further adding to the misery of women and making them more reluctant to speak up about their experiences.15 Another study revealed that Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest prevalence of IPV against women all over the world with an estimated pooled prevalence of 41.3%. It was observed that the risk of experiencing IPV were significantly more for less educated and rural women.16 A similar study was conducted on 600 women which revealed that the lifetime prevalence of IPV was 64% in rural women compared to 70% in the urban areas of South western Nigeria. It was observed that the most frequently reported type of IPV experienced by both rural and urban women was controlling behavior of their partners. Furthermore, urban women suffered from SV and controlling behaviors of their partners more commonly than rural women, whereas rural women experienced more of PV. Hence, it was concluded that IPV was common in women of both communities, though the types of IPV experienced were different.17 A study was conducted on women attending infertility clinics in Turkey to know the prevalence of IPV and family violence, which revealed that 76.8% of the women were exposed to violence, 62.5% of the women reported that the perpetrator of the violence were their own relatives, of which 17.7% were spouses.18 On the contrary to such results, a recent study conducted on the pooled data from 578,471 women who were interviewed 1,672,999 times in the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) between 1994 and 2015reported that women living in rural isolation were at a lower risk of IPV victimization as compared to other American women and the women that resided in small towns in the urbanized portions of nonmetropolitan counties, who were found to be at higher risk of suffering PV by an IP.19 A study conducted in Southeast Nigeria to know the burden and perception of DV among rural and urban women revealed that the prevalence of DV particularly PV among rural women was significantly higher compared to the urban women. 21 Another study from Ethiopia revealed that the lifetime prevalence of DV against women by their husbands or IP ranged from 20-78%, of domestic PV by husband or IP 31-76.5 % respectively.22
In the present community-based study amongst rural women, 60.4% and 54.4%of women were found to have suffered PV at home and at workplaces respectively, with the majority by their husbands at home (52.0%) and by the employers at workplaces (56.6%). Most of them informed about the PV at home and at workplaces to their family members with 34.8% of those who suffered DV and 7.1% who suffered at the hands of their husbands compared to 4.2% who suffered PV at workplaces, informed the police. Demographic features like age, education, occupation, and socio-economic status did affect the burden of PV against women. It is therefore necessary to generate awareness and formulate laws and policies for the protection of women against violence. Healthcare workers should be educated and trained to identify such conditions and inform to appropriate authorities about it. Right steps taken at the right time can prevent many long-term damages to the society and nation on the whole.
Clearly Auctoresonline and particularly Psychology and Mental Health Care Journal is dedicated to improving health care services for individuals and populations. The editorial boards' ability to efficiently recognize and share the global importance of health literacy with a variety of stakeholders. Auctoresonline publishing platform can be used to facilitate of optimal client-based services and should be added to health care professionals' repertoire of evidence-based health care resources.
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