AUCTORES
Globalize your Research
Review Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2641-5194/037
Director Grade Scientist, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India.
*Corresponding Author: PD Gupta, Former, Director Grade Scientist, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India.
Citation: P.D. Gupta (2021) Fasting Gastrointestinal Tract: Changes in Structure, Functions and Microbiota Milieu J. Gastroenterology Pancreatology and Hepatobiliary Disorders. 5(3): DOI: 10.31579/2641-5194/037
Copyright: © 2021, PD Gupta, This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 20 June 2021 | Accepted: 21 June 2021 | Published: 28 June 2021
Keywords: gastrointestinal tract: microbiota milieu
Short and Intermittent fasting brings many structural and functional changes in the GI tract.Now it has been shown that changes are beneficial in terms of postponing the onset of NCDs prolonging the healthage,That might be the reason for Ancient Indian saints todo fasting. These benefits have been described in a series of research papers by us and others. Change in microbiota due to fasting is a recent addition which explains the mechanism of many physiological processes taking place during fasting.Two other parameters namely, effect of long and short term fasting and.sexual dimorphism on microbiota also dealt with in this review.
The biological clock controls many cyclic functions in the human body and hunger is one of those [1].The gastrointestinal (GI) tube from mouth to anus is lodged in the abdominal cavity involved in digestion of the food. Digestion is the complex process of turning the food into gastric juices, that assimilate withe the blood circulate all along the body. The body uses these juices for energy, growth and cell repair needed for an individual to survive. The digestion process also involves creating waste from the food which we eat to be eliminated. The foods which we eat provide energy to the body in the form of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) [2]. In addition to digestive enzyme systems, GI secretes hormones like gastrin, secretin which control the different digestive enzymes that are secreted in the stomach and the intestine during the process of digestion and absorption [3].
The third component which gained importance lately is the microbiota; this is essentially a microbial organ that provides metabolic, immunologic, and protective functions for the host. This is also observed that intestinal components always remain in balance,if intra or inter component balance is disterbed one would get sick. [4]. Habitual diet, changes in macronutrient composition, and consumption of nondigestible dietary fibers have all been shown to impact the human GI microbiome. Intriguingly, the impact of diet on the microbiome may be related not only to what humans eat but also to the timing of food consumption [5]. Therefore fasting has a profound effect on the composition and function of the enterocytes and microbiota. Emerging preclinical research suggests that gut microbes experience diurnal rhythms, and the health effects of eating patterns, including time-restricted feeding and meal frequency, may be related to the GI microbiota [6].
Dietary restrictions for their promising effects on longevity and healthspan have been adopted by health conscious populations globally, It also affects age-associated diseases and, in clinical studies, promotes beneficial health outcomes. Because long-term compliance with daily calorie restriction has proven problematic in humans, several intermittent fasting regimens, including alternate day fasting and time-restricted feeding, have evolved revealing similar clinical benefits as calorie restriction [7].
During fasting (starvation) there are major changes in the structure, composition, and functions of the microvilli (brush border membrane (BBM))of the intestinal epithelial cells.[8,9] The surface area of the BBM becomes at least one and half times per cell compared to normal fed intestine border membrane (BBM)[10]. The density of IMPs and filipin-sterol complexes (FSCs) decrease considerably during starvation [11]. Biochemical estimations show Alterations in the lipid and fatty acid composition of BBM, a decrease in the levels of cholesterol and proteins with respect to phospholipids, sphingomyelin/phosphatidylcholine (mol/mol), protein/lipid (w/w), and free fatty ()acids (w/w) decreased whereas the total phospholipid (w/w) ratio and the double-bond index increased. Analyses of fatty acids showed higher percentages of stearic and arachidonic acids whereas oleic and linoleic acids decreased under starvation [12] On refeeding, these changes were restored to well-fed levels[13]. The change in membrane state under starvation is associated with alterations in the lipid and fatty acid composition of BBM and may be responsible for functional changes that occur under nutritional stress.During starvation which is in agreement with morphological findings.[8,11,12,13]
Energy goes towards healing our bodies instead of digesting food. Fasting also allows for the body's enzyme system to focus on detoxifying and breaking down toxins in the body quickly and efficiently without the job of heavy food digestion [14, 15].
There is a fairly good knowledge we have towards the cellular and physiological changes for the fasting intestine and benefits of fasting; however, relatively little knowledge has been acquired of the impact of these various fasting protocols on the gut microbiome (GM). Fasting gut may beneficially alter the composition and function of a welfed gut microbiota.It was known that non-communicable diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cancer and neurological and gastrointestinal inflammatory diseases(NCDs) could be controlled by dietary restrictions and/or intermittent or short term fasting.The new insights that the gut microbiota that was reshuffled during fasting has positive influence on host metabolism, gut barrier permeability, brain functions, and subsequently, postpone the onset of NCDs prolonging the health [16].
Most of the time western diet can promote deleterious changes in the GM [17, 18]. These microbiota interfere in lipid and glucose metabolism. In addition to this the well fed intestinal microbiota weakens immune responses [19]. Fasting has been demonstrated to increase the abundance of protective, beneficial microbial families,such as Bifidobacteriaceae, Lactobacillaceae and Akkermanisaceae. The initial findings may be promising for the use of fasting to beneficially influence and alter the gut microbiota.Intermittent fasting might directly affect gut microbial composition, function and interaction with the host [17, 18]. Fasting could have a profound and long-lasting effect on human GIT microbiome and drove individuals to develop a more homogenous GIT microbial community.Ongoing research on the health impact of fasting regimens on GM modulation is warranted and some of its benefits could be mediated by the circadian system [20].
Longer periods of fasting appear to reduce total bacterial load, and this is associated with improved gut health and lifespan extension.
We also studied healthy humans to look at the gut microbiome to see how it changes with 2 fasts per week. At the 12-16 hour mark, we saw a dramatic shift in the gut microbiome population after fasting for that period. Certain bacteria are super responsive to fasting, and those tend to be beneficial bacteria.Dietary restriction (DR) decreases body weight, improves health, and extends lifespan. Dietary and pharmacological interventions promote a healthy lifespan by influencing energy intake and circadian rhythms. [21].Short-term fasting (14–22 h) resulted in sexually dimorphic metabolic changes, which were more pronounced during prolonged fasting (38–72 h)
Effects of fasting differ between men and women. Women metabolize lipids more during fasting, while men have preference of carbohydrate utilization (22). Plasma glucose concentrations were shown to be lower, while free fatty acids (FFA) and lipolysis were higher in women compared to men after fasting. Mechanisms that can increase lipolytic rates in women include higher total fat mass, enhanced lipolytic sensitivity to epinephrine, and increased activation of β adrenergic receptors [23].
Clearly Auctoresonline and particularly Psychology and Mental Health Care Journal is dedicated to improving health care services for individuals and populations. The editorial boards' ability to efficiently recognize and share the global importance of health literacy with a variety of stakeholders. Auctoresonline publishing platform can be used to facilitate of optimal client-based services and should be added to health care professionals' repertoire of evidence-based health care resources.
Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Intervention The submission and review process was adequate. However I think that the publication total value should have been enlightened in early fases. Thank you for all.
Journal of Women Health Care and Issues By the present mail, I want to say thank to you and tour colleagues for facilitating my published article. Specially thank you for the peer review process, support from the editorial office. I appreciate positively the quality of your journal.
Journal of Clinical Research and Reports I would be very delighted to submit my testimonial regarding the reviewer board and the editorial office. The reviewer board were accurate and helpful regarding any modifications for my manuscript. And the editorial office were very helpful and supportive in contacting and monitoring with any update and offering help. It was my pleasure to contribute with your promising Journal and I am looking forward for more collaboration.
We would like to thank the Journal of Thoracic Disease and Cardiothoracic Surgery because of the services they provided us for our articles. The peer-review process was done in a very excellent time manner, and the opinions of the reviewers helped us to improve our manuscript further. The editorial office had an outstanding correspondence with us and guided us in many ways. During a hard time of the pandemic that is affecting every one of us tremendously, the editorial office helped us make everything easier for publishing scientific work. Hope for a more scientific relationship with your Journal.
The peer-review process which consisted high quality queries on the paper. I did answer six reviewers’ questions and comments before the paper was accepted. The support from the editorial office is excellent.
Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. I had the experience of publishing a research article recently. The whole process was simple from submission to publication. The reviewers made specific and valuable recommendations and corrections that improved the quality of my publication. I strongly recommend this Journal.
Dr. Katarzyna Byczkowska My testimonial covering: "The peer review process is quick and effective. The support from the editorial office is very professional and friendly. Quality of the Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on cardiology that is useful for other professionals in the field.
Thank you most sincerely, with regard to the support you have given in relation to the reviewing process and the processing of my article entitled "Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of The Prostate Gland: A Review and Update" for publication in your esteemed Journal, Journal of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics". The editorial team has been very supportive.
Testimony of Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology: work with your Reviews has been a educational and constructive experience. The editorial office were very helpful and supportive. It was a pleasure to contribute to your Journal.
Dr. Bernard Terkimbi Utoo, I am happy to publish my scientific work in Journal of Women Health Care and Issues (JWHCI). The manuscript submission was seamless and peer review process was top notch. I was amazed that 4 reviewers worked on the manuscript which made it a highly technical, standard and excellent quality paper. I appreciate the format and consideration for the APC as well as the speed of publication. It is my pleasure to continue with this scientific relationship with the esteem JWHCI.
This is an acknowledgment for peer reviewers, editorial board of Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. They show a lot of consideration for us as publishers for our research article “Evaluation of the different factors associated with side effects of COVID-19 vaccination on medical students, Mutah university, Al-Karak, Jordan”, in a very professional and easy way. This journal is one of outstanding medical journal.
Dear Hao Jiang, to Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing We greatly appreciate the efficient, professional and rapid processing of our paper by your team. If there is anything else we should do, please do not hesitate to let us know. On behalf of my co-authors, we would like to express our great appreciation to editor and reviewers.
As an author who has recently published in the journal "Brain and Neurological Disorders". I am delighted to provide a testimonial on the peer review process, editorial office support, and the overall quality of the journal. The peer review process at Brain and Neurological Disorders is rigorous and meticulous, ensuring that only high-quality, evidence-based research is published. The reviewers are experts in their fields, and their comments and suggestions were constructive and helped improve the quality of my manuscript. The review process was timely and efficient, with clear communication from the editorial office at each stage. The support from the editorial office was exceptional throughout the entire process. The editorial staff was responsive, professional, and always willing to help. They provided valuable guidance on formatting, structure, and ethical considerations, making the submission process seamless. Moreover, they kept me informed about the status of my manuscript and provided timely updates, which made the process less stressful. The journal Brain and Neurological Disorders is of the highest quality, with a strong focus on publishing cutting-edge research in the field of neurology. The articles published in this journal are well-researched, rigorously peer-reviewed, and written by experts in the field. The journal maintains high standards, ensuring that readers are provided with the most up-to-date and reliable information on brain and neurological disorders. In conclusion, I had a wonderful experience publishing in Brain and Neurological Disorders. The peer review process was thorough, the editorial office provided exceptional support, and the journal's quality is second to none. I would highly recommend this journal to any researcher working in the field of neurology and brain disorders.
Dear Agrippa Hilda, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, Editorial Coordinator, I trust this message finds you well. I want to extend my appreciation for considering my article for publication in your esteemed journal. I am pleased to provide a testimonial regarding the peer review process and the support received from your editorial office. The peer review process for my paper was carried out in a highly professional and thorough manner. The feedback and comments provided by the authors were constructive and very useful in improving the quality of the manuscript. This rigorous assessment process undoubtedly contributes to the high standards maintained by your journal.
International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. I strongly recommend to consider submitting your work to this high-quality journal. The support and availability of the Editorial staff is outstanding and the review process was both efficient and rigorous.
Thank you very much for publishing my Research Article titled “Comparing Treatment Outcome Of Allergic Rhinitis Patients After Using Fluticasone Nasal Spray And Nasal Douching" in the Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology. As Medical Professionals we are immensely benefited from study of various informative Articles and Papers published in this high quality Journal. I look forward to enriching my knowledge by regular study of the Journal and contribute my future work in the field of ENT through the Journal for use by the medical fraternity. The support from the Editorial office was excellent and very prompt. I also welcome the comments received from the readers of my Research Article.
Dear Erica Kelsey, Editorial Coordinator of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics Our team is very satisfied with the processing of our paper by your journal. That was fast, efficient, rigorous, but without unnecessary complications. We appreciated the very short time between the submission of the paper and its publication on line on your site.
I am very glad to say that the peer review process is very successful and fast and support from the Editorial Office. Therefore, I would like to continue our scientific relationship for a long time. And I especially thank you for your kindly attention towards my article. Have a good day!
"We recently published an article entitled “Influence of beta-Cyclodextrins upon the Degradation of Carbofuran Derivatives under Alkaline Conditions" in the Journal of “Pesticides and Biofertilizers” to show that the cyclodextrins protect the carbamates increasing their half-life time in the presence of basic conditions This will be very helpful to understand carbofuran behaviour in the analytical, agro-environmental and food areas. We greatly appreciated the interaction with the editor and the editorial team; we were particularly well accompanied during the course of the revision process, since all various steps towards publication were short and without delay".
I would like to express my gratitude towards you process of article review and submission. I found this to be very fair and expedient. Your follow up has been excellent. I have many publications in national and international journal and your process has been one of the best so far. Keep up the great work.
We are grateful for this opportunity to provide a glowing recommendation to the Journal of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. We found that the editorial team were very supportive, helpful, kept us abreast of timelines and over all very professional in nature. The peer review process was rigorous, efficient and constructive that really enhanced our article submission. The experience with this journal remains one of our best ever and we look forward to providing future submissions in the near future.
I am very pleased to serve as EBM of the journal, I hope many years of my experience in stem cells can help the journal from one way or another. As we know, stem cells hold great potential for regenerative medicine, which are mostly used to promote the repair response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. I think Stem Cell Research and Therapeutics International is a great platform to publish and share the understanding towards the biology and translational or clinical application of stem cells.
I would like to give my testimony in the support I have got by the peer review process and to support the editorial office where they were of asset to support young author like me to be encouraged to publish their work in your respected journal and globalize and share knowledge across the globe. I really give my great gratitude to your journal and the peer review including the editorial office.
I am delighted to publish our manuscript entitled "A Perspective on Cocaine Induced Stroke - Its Mechanisms and Management" in the Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal are excellent. The manuscripts published are of high quality and of excellent scientific value. I recommend this journal very much to colleagues.
Dr.Tania Muñoz, My experience as researcher and author of a review article in The Journal Clinical Cardiology and Interventions has been very enriching and stimulating. The editorial team is excellent, performs its work with absolute responsibility and delivery. They are proactive, dynamic and receptive to all proposals. Supporting at all times the vast universe of authors who choose them as an option for publication. The team of review specialists, members of the editorial board, are brilliant professionals, with remarkable performance in medical research and scientific methodology. Together they form a frontline team that consolidates the JCCI as a magnificent option for the publication and review of high-level medical articles and broad collective interest. I am honored to be able to share my review article and open to receive all your comments.
“The peer review process of JPMHC is quick and effective. Authors are benefited by good and professional reviewers with huge experience in the field of psychology and mental health. The support from the editorial office is very professional. People to contact to are friendly and happy to help and assist any query authors might have. Quality of the Journal is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on mental health that is useful for other professionals in the field”.
Dear editorial department: On behalf of our team, I hereby certify the reliability and superiority of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews in the peer review process, editorial support, and journal quality. Firstly, the peer review process of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is rigorous, fair, transparent, fast, and of high quality. The editorial department invites experts from relevant fields as anonymous reviewers to review all submitted manuscripts. These experts have rich academic backgrounds and experience, and can accurately evaluate the academic quality, originality, and suitability of manuscripts. The editorial department is committed to ensuring the rigor of the peer review process, while also making every effort to ensure a fast review cycle to meet the needs of authors and the academic community. Secondly, the editorial team of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is composed of a group of senior scholars and professionals with rich experience and professional knowledge in related fields. The editorial department is committed to assisting authors in improving their manuscripts, ensuring their academic accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Editors actively collaborate with authors, providing useful suggestions and feedback to promote the improvement and development of the manuscript. We believe that the support of the editorial department is one of the key factors in ensuring the quality of the journal. Finally, the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is renowned for its high- quality articles and strict academic standards. The editorial department is committed to publishing innovative and academically valuable research results to promote the development and progress of related fields. The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is reasonably priced and ensures excellent service and quality ratio, allowing authors to obtain high-level academic publishing opportunities in an affordable manner. I hereby solemnly declare that the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews has a high level of credibility and superiority in terms of peer review process, editorial support, reasonable fees, and journal quality. Sincerely, Rui Tao.
Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions I testity the covering of the peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal.
