info@auctorespublishing.com
+1-(302)-520-2644
+1-(302)-520-2644

Corona Virus (Covid-19) Infection and the Kidney: A Review and Update

  1. Home
  2. Journals
  3. International Journal of BioMed Research
  4. Archives
Submit Guidelines

Review Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/IJBR-2021/036

Corona Virus (Covid-19) Infection and the Kidney: A Review and Update

  • Anthony Kodzo-Grey Venyo 1*

North Manchester General Hospital, Department of Urology, Manchester, United Kingdom. 

*Corresponding Author: Anthony Kodzo-Grey Venyo, North Manchester General Hospital, Department of Urology, Manchester, United Kingdom.

Citation: Anthony K.G.Venyo (2022) Arteriovenous Malformation of the Uterus: A Review and Update International J. of Biomed Research. 2(2): DOI: 10.31579/IJBR-2021/036

Copyright: © 2022, Anthony Kodzo-Grey Venyo, This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Received: 06 August 2021 | Accepted: 15 September 2021 | Published: 10 January 2022

Keywords: COVID-19 infection; kidney function; haemodialysis, chronic kidney disease; estimated glomerular filtration rate; acute kidney injury

Abstract

The new coronavirus infection / disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a global world health pandemic disease which has been regarded a health emergency in every country. COVID-19 infection has predominantly affected individuals whose ages have ranged between 30 years and 79 years old and out of these infections it has been documented that about 81% of the COVID-19 infection cases had been considered to be mild disease. Even though majority of individuals who develop COVID-19 infection do manifest with symptoms and signs that simulate the common cold, COVID-19 infection has also emanated in the development of alveolar damage which has been ensued by the development of alveolar damage which has resulted in the development of progressive respiratory failure in which fatalities had resulted in in 6.4% of the COVID-19 infection cases. The COVID-19 infection cases. It has been iterated that direct viral injury, uncontrolled inflammation, activation of coagulation, as well as complement cascades are conjectured to form part of the pathogenesis of COVID-19 infection. COVID-19 infection does affect not only the respiratory tract but it does also affect various organs of the body including the kidney. Individual patients who have been affected by COVID-19 infection have developed features of kidney damage through acute kidney injury, and they tend to manifest with mild proteinuria, haematuria, or slightly raised serum levels of creatinine which has been considered to have ensued from kidney tropism of the virus as well as from multi-organ failure. The impact of COVID-19 infection upon patients who have already pre-existing renal impairment, with the inclusion of individuals who already have chronic kidney disease (CKD), renal transplant recipients, as well as individuals who are undergoing haemodialysis (HD) have not yet been fully studied. Nevertheless, it could be envisaged that individuals have already been having some form of kidney disease could have more severe impairment of renal function and they would need renal support.  There is no consensus opinion most effective specific treatment options for COVID-19 infection in general and infection of the kidney yet to be ratified. Results of research studies had documented many agents which might be potential efficacious against COVID-19 infection, and many of these molecules have depicted preliminary efficacy against COVID-19 infection and they are at the moment being tested in clinical trials. It is important to check the renal function of all COVID-19 infected patients who do not have pre-existing renal disease as well as those who already have known renal disease so that based upon the results of the initial renal function test results and follow-up renal function results, clinicians can plan effective renal support management for all patients including rehydration and avoidance of renal toxic medicaments. 

Introduction

It has been iterated that the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak had resulted in swift efforts to learn about the clinical course, prognostic markers, and complications of coronavirus disease and that as a consequence there has been a lot of scattered information available relating to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 infection; nevertheless, its pathophysiology has been poorly understood virus [1]. It has also been stated that macroscopic and microscopic findings of COVID-19 infected organs are pertinent for the understanding of any disease, including COVID-19 infection [1]. It has been documented that in the large number of original studies that are available to be read and studied on COVID-19 infection, it could be difficult to ascertain a full picture of the effect of COVID-19 infection has upon the body as a whole, in view of the fact that many studies had reported conflicting results [1]. The ensuing article on COVID-19 infection in general and in association with acute kidney injury (AKI) which has been divided into two parts: (A) Overview of COVID-19 infection generally and (B) Miscellaneous narrations and discussions related to some case reports, case series and studies related to COVID-19 infection kidney injury. 

Methods

Internet data bases were searched including: Google, Google Scholar, Yahoo, and PUBMED. Search words that were used included: COVID-19 infection, Coronavirus infection, and COVID-19 infection of kidney, COVID-19 Renal infection, Acute Kidney Injury in COVID-19 infection, renal failure in covid-19 infection, and kidney failure in coronavirus infection. Two hundred and thirty nine (239) references were identified which were used in writing the review and update of the literature on COVID-19 infection in general and in association with acute kidney injury (AKI) which has been divided into two parts: (A) Overview of COVID-19 infection generally and (B) Miscellaneous narrations and discussions related to some case reports, case series and studies related to COVID-19 infection kidney injury.   

[(A)] Overview 

Definition / general statements 

Some of the summations made related to the definition and some general aspects of COVID-19 infection include the following: [2] 

1. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a terminology that is utilized for an infectious respiratory disease which is caused by novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 which had emerged in Wuhan, China at the end of 2019, emanating in a global pandemic

2. Infection control guidance for healthcare professionals have been made related to COVI-19 infection and could be found as follows:

                CDC [3] 
                Personal protective equipment (PPE) basics [4]

3. COVID-19 represents a viral infection which is caused by coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 which can progress to severe acute respiratory syndrome with pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome [2]
4. COVID-19 infection did spread rapidly and became a pandemic with more than 100 million confirmed cases of CIVID-19 infection and over 2 million deaths related to COVID-19 infection globally by end of January 2021 [2]
5. Histologically, COVID-19 does show upon microscopy examination of the infected tissue of the lung in cases of COVID-19 infection of the lung diffuse alveolar damage corresponding to the phase of the disease  ranging from the acute to the fibrotic phase that is, divided into 3 main injury patterns: epithelial, vascular and fibrotic [2]
6. A  definite diagnosis of CIVID-19 infection tends to be based upon the detection of viral RNA by RT-PCR [2]

Terminology

  •  It has been iterated that COVID-19 is also referred to as novel coronavirus pneumonia [2] 
  • It has additionally been iterated that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is also referred to as 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) [2] [pathologyoutlines.co]
  • It is important to know that COVID-19 infection does affect various organs of the body and not the lung alone. [2] 

Epidemiology of COVID-19 in General 

  • COVID-19 pandemic [2] 
    • It has been iterated that in December 2019, cases of pneumonia that were associated with unknown aetiology had been reported from Wuhan, Hubei Province, China to WHO [2] [5] 
    • It has also been documented that in January 2020, the Chinese authorities had identified a novel type of coronavirus, which was subsequently named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) [2] 
    • It has been reported that at the beginning of February 2020, almost 10,000 cases of COVID-19 were confirmed in China and more than 100 cases of COVID-19 infection had been identified outside of China  [2, 6] 
    • It has been iterated that the COIVID-19 disease did spread rapidly and that it became a pandemic with more than 100 million confirmed cases and over 2 million deaths globally by end of January 2021 [2] 
    • It has been iterated that the United States of America now has the most confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection with more than 25 million reported cases and confirmed deaths that amounted to more than 400,000 throughout the world.  [2, 7]
  • Person to person transmission of COVID-19 infection is suspected to occur through respiratory droplets including coughing and sneezing. [2] 
  • The key to slowing the spread of COVID-19 infection is through widespread testing for COVID-19 infection so that patients could be quickly identified and isolated from the public. [2] 
  • More than 120 SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are under development [8]

Sites affected by COVID-19 infection

  • It has been iterated that the upper respiratory tract tends to be affected by COVID-19 infection  in mild disease of the respiratory tract [2] 
  • It has also been iterated that bilateral lobes of the lung tend to be affected in more severe COVID-19 disease [2] 
  • It is important to note that COVID-19 infection does affect various organs of the body including the kidney and the urinary tract [2]. 

Pathophysiology

  • It has been iterated that with regard to the pathophysiology of COVID-19 infection a spike surface glycoprotein of the virus does bind onto the host through receptor binding domains of the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), that is most abundant in type II alveolar cells [2] [9] 
    • In COVID-19 infection there tends to be10 times to 20 times higher binding affinity in comparison with the SARS-CoV-1 virus [2] [10] 
  • It has been explained that after a SARS-CoV-2 has attached to a target cell, the virion does release RNA into the cell, that initiates replication of the virus which then further disseminates to infect more cells [2] [11] 
  • It has been documented that SARS-CoV-2 does produce many virulence factors which promote shedding of new virions from host cells as well as inhibit immune response [2] 
  • It has been iterated that there tends to be virus independent immunopathology in fatal COVID-19  [2] [12]
    • It has been documented that organ injury and death in COVID-19 tends to be immune mediated rather than pathogen mediated [2] 
    • It has also been stated that tissue inflammation as well as organ dysfunction in fatal COVID-19 do not correlate with the tissue and cellular distribution of SARS-CoV-2 [2] 

Aetiology

  •  It has been iterated that in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a positive sense, single stranded RNA virus having close genetic similarity to bat coronaviruses tends to be found. [2] [13] 

Clinical features of COVID-19 in general

  • It has been iterated that the average time from exposure COVID-19 to the onset of symptom is 5 days [2] [14] 
    • It has also been stated that 97.5% of people who develop symptoms related to COVID-19 infection do so within 11.5 days [2] [8] 
  • It has been iterated that the asymptomatic COVID-19 infection rate 46% [2] [15] 
  • It has been documented that COVID-19 infection is rare in children, and this does amount to about 2% to 5% of confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection and children tend to have milder symptoms and very low hospitalization rate of less than 7%  [2] [8]
  • It has been iterated that the common symptoms of COVID-19 infection in hospitalized patients do include the following: [2] [8]
    • Fever in 70% to 90% of cases
    • Dry cough in 60% to 86% of cases
    • Shortness of breath in 53% to 80% of cases
    • Fatigue in 38% of cases
    • Myalgias in15% to 44% of cases
    • Nausea / vomiting or diarrhoea in15% to 39% of cases
    • Headache, weakness in 25% of cases
  • It has been iterated that patients who have COVID-19 infection could manifest with nonclassical symptoms [2] [8] which could include:
    • Isolated gastrointestinal symptoms
    • Isolated anosmia or ageusia in 3% of cases
  • It has been iterated that COVID-19 infection could emanate in progress to severe acute respiratory syndrome as well as its major clinicopathological phenotypes that include pneumonia and acute respiratory syndrome. [2] 
    • The distribution of severity of COVID-19 infection has been summated as follows: [2] [16] :
      • Mild or no disease in 81% of cases
      • Severe disease in 14% of cases
      • Critical disease in 5% of cases
      • Overall case fatality rate in 2.3% of cases
    • It has been documented that 20% to 42% of hospitalized patients who had COVID-19 infection developed acute respiratory distress syndrome [2] [17] [18] 
  • It has been reported that patients who required intensive care support (ICU) supportive care had manifested with acute respiratory distress syndrome, acute cardiac injury, acute kidney injury and shock as well as up to 15% of them had fatal outcomes [2] [19] 
  • The documented common complications that ensued COVID-19 infection among hospitalized patients were summarized as follows: [2]  [8] 
    • Pneumonia in 75% of cases
    • Acute respiratory distress syndrome in15% of cases
    • Acute liver injury in19% of cases
    • Cardiac injury in 7% to 17% of cases with troponin elevation, acute heart failure, dysrhythmias, myocarditis [2] [8] 
    • Prothrombotic coagulopathy resulting in venous and arterial thromboembolic events in10% to 25% of cases
    • Acute kidney injury in 9% of cases
    • Acute cerebrovascular disease in 3% of cases
    • Shock in 6% of cases
  • It has additionally been iterated that a rare multi-system inflammatory syndrome which is similar to Kawasaki disease has recently been described in children which amounted to 2 cases per 100,000 persons aged who were less 21 years old. [2] [8] 

Diagnosis

Summations related to diagnostic testing of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) that have been documented include: [2] 

It has been iterated that nasopharyngeal swab has been recommended for the specimen; oropharyngeal swab, sputum and bronchoalveolar lavage could be utilized alternatively [2] [20] 

  • It was stated that positive rates of SARS-CoV-2 PCR testing by specimen types were reported as follows: bronchoalveolar lavage fluid 93%, sputum 72%, nasal swabs 63%, pharyngeal swabs 32% [8] 
  • Definite diagnosis of COVID-19 infection is based upon the detection of viral RNA by real time RT-PCR through many available laboratory tests. [21] [22] 
  • False negative COVID-19 test results could occur in up to 20% to 67% of patients depending upon the quality and timing of testing
    • A modelling study had estimated sensitivity at 33Mays pursuant to exposure, 62% on the day of the onset of the symptom and 80=ays pursuant to the onset of symptom [23]

Laboratory test results in COVID-19 infection 

  • Summations related to routine haematology and biochemistry blood test meta-analysis data of patients who have COVID-19 infection do include: [2] [19] 
    • Evidence of decreased albumin
    • Evidence of high C reactive protein level
    • Evidence of high lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) level
    • Evidence of lymphopenia
    • Evidence of high erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)
  • D dimer elevation was also reported in COVID-19 infection [2] [10]

Radiology imaging description of chest imaging in COVID 19 pulmonary infected patients [2] 

  • It has been iterated that chest radiographs of individuals who have COVID-19 infection of the lungs do demonstrate Ground glass opacities, crazy paving pattern and consolidation in bilateral lobes which tend to be common findings [2] [24] 
  • It has been documented that in individuals who have COVID-19 infection of the lungs,15% of computed tomography (CT) scans of the thorax and 40% of chest radiograph findings tend to demonstrate normal features early in the disease [2]  [8]
  • It has been iterated that evolution of abnormalities within the pulmonary system does occur within the first 2 weeks pursuant to the onset of COVID-19 infection. [2]

Factors of prognostication in COVID-19 pulmonary infection

Some of the risk-factors associated with COVID-19 pulmonary infections have been summated as follows; [2] 

  • Risks for the development of acute respiratory syndrome do include an age greater than 65 years, underlying diseases including diabetes mellitus, as well as secondary infection. [2] [17], [25] 
  • Risk factors for progression of COVID-19 infection / disease do include: male sex, old age of being older than 65 years of age, as well as smoking [2] [26] 
  • Risk factors for critical / mortal states of COVID-19 infection, in order of strength of association have been summated to include: [2] [27]
    • Cardiovascular disease
    • Respiratory disease
    • Diabetes mellitus
    • Hypertension

Treatment of COVID-19 pulmonary infection [2] 

  • It has been iterated that home management is recommended for patients who have mild COVID-19 infection symptoms
    • It has been stated that the optimal duration of home isolation is under investigation but the COVID-19 virus is shed for an average of about 20 days after the commencement of the COVID-19 infection in hospitalized patients [2] [27].
  • It has been advised that patients who have severe COVID-19 disease should require hospital care
    • It has been iterated that patients who have severe COVID-19 disease may need oxygenation support, ranging from low dose oxygen supplement to invasive ventilation as well as extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) [2].
  • It has been iterated that among antiviral medicaments including ribavirin, favipiravir, and remdesivir which are undergoing clinical testing, remdesivir does seem to be most promising [2, 8].

It has been iterated that NIH COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel has recommended utilization of dexamethasone in patients on ventilators and in those who do require supplemental oxygen but not in other COVID-19 infected patients [27-29]

Macroscopic examination features of COVID-19 pulmonary infected lung. 

It has been iterated that gross examination of the lung of individuals who are infected with pulmonary COVID-19 tend to demonstrate the ensuing features: [2] 

  • Gross examination of the lung of individuals who have pulmonary COVID-19 infection does various features from pulmonary oedema to consolidation of the lung [2] [30]
  • Gross examination of COVID-19 infected lung does demonstrate increased lung weight [2]
  • Macroscopic examination of the lung of patients who have COVID-19 pulmonary infection does show haemorrhagic changes within the lung [2] [31]
  • Gross examination of the lung of individuals who have COVID-19 pulmonary infection does demonstrate evidence of macroscopic pulmonary emboli [2] [31] 
  • Macroscopy examination of lungs of individuals who have pulmonary COVID-12 infection may demonstrate evidence of pleurisy in which features of pleural inflammation may be seen [2]
  • In cases of COVID-19 infection of the lung that is associated with superimposed secondary infection, there would be evidence of purulent inflammation. [2]

Microscopy examination features of COVID-19 infected lung

It has been iterated that pulmonary changes tend to be the most significant finding in COVID-19 pulmonary disease, even though the features are nonspecific [2, 32-35] 

  • It has been documented that the findings of diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) that correspond to the phase of COVID-19 infection disease tend to be seen upon microscopy examination as follows:
    • In the exudative phase of COVID-19 pulmonary disease, microscopy examination of the lung does demonstrate hyaline membrane formation, desquamation of pneumocytes, cellular or proteinaceous exudates, alveolar haemorrhage, fibrinoid necrosis of small vessels [34] [35]
    • In the organizing phase of COVID-19 pulmonary infection, microscopy examination of the lung does demonstrate interstitial and intra-alveolar proliferation of fibroblasts, lymphocytic infiltration, type II pneumocyte hyperplasia, as well as fibrin deposition
    • In the fibrotic phase of COVID-19 pulmonary infection, microscopy examination of the lung does show dense collagenous fibrosis, and architectural remodelling [34, 35]
    • Lung injury patterns in COVID-19 disease [2] [31] [36]:

Lung injury patterns of COVID-19 disease include: 

  • Epithelial pattern in 85% of cases in which DAD with varying degrees of organization, denudation, hyperplasia of pneumocytes are seen
  • Vascular pattern of COVID-19 disease in 59% of cases in which can be found diffuse intra-alveolar fibrin, microvascular damage, (micro) thrombi, acute fibrinous as well as organizing pneumonia
  • Fibrotic pattern of COVID-19 disease in 22% of cases in which can be found: fibrotic DAD, and interstitial fibrosis
    • Viral infection changes:
      • Multinucleated enlarged pneumocytes with large nuclei, amphophilic cytoplasm and prominent nucleoli in alveolar spaces
      • Intranuclear inclusions
    • Bacterial pneumonia may be superimposed upon the COVID-19 pulmonary disease
  • Extra-pulmonary COVID-19 infection changes [2] [31]
    • Cardiovascular COVID-19 infection changes that tend to be visualized upon microscopy examination does include: mild pericardial oedema, some serosanguinous pericardial effusion, mild myocardial oedema, low grade interstitial infiltration of mononuclear cells, as well as endotheliitis
      • It has been iterated that widespread systemic vasculitis that is with associated thrombo-emboli tends not to bet as common as was initially thought [2] [37]
    • Hepatobiliary COVID-19 infection changes that tend to be visualized include: hepatic congestion, mild steatosis, patchy hepatic necrosis, Kupffer cell hyperplasia, increased number of lymphocyte predominant inflammatory cells in the portal tracts and sinusoids, as well as endotheliitis [2]
    • Renal COVID-19 infection changes that tend to be visualized do include: various degrees of acute tubular injury, lymphocytic tubule interstitial infiltration, fibrin or hyaline thrombi in blood vessel, glomerular capillary dilatation, as well as lymphocytic endotheliitis [2] [38]
    • Gastrointestinal COVID-19 changes that tend to be visualized include: epithelial damage, prominent endotheliitis, as well as ischemic enterocolitis [2]
    • Spleen COVID-19 changes that tend to be seen include: reduced number of lymphocytes with necrosis, atrophy, congestion, haemorrhage, as well as infarction [2]
    • Bone marrow COVID-19 infection changes that tend to be seen include: histiocytic hyperplasia, as well as hemophagocytosis [2] [39]
    • Other COVID-19 infection changes that tend to be found include: cutaneous manifestations, prostatic manifestations, inflammation as well as clots in placenta with funisitis [2]

Cytology examination features of COVID-19 infection of the lung

  • It has been iterated that cytology examination of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in COVID-19 infection of the lung does show the following: [2]
    • Abundant activated plasma cells, as per a single case report [2] [40]
    • Alveolar macrophages could feature nuclear clearing or intranuclear cytopathic inclusions [2]

Immunohistochemistry Positive stains

  • It has been iterated that immunohistochemistry (IHC) positive staining for SARS-CoV-2 antigen was detected in pneumocytes, ciliated airway cells as well as upper airway epithelium in the acute phase [2] [41]

Electron microscopy examination features of COVID-19 pulmonary disease specimen. 

It has been iterated that electron microscopy examination of COVID-19 infection pulmonary tissue does demonstrate the following: [2]

  • Spherical particles that are sized 60 mm to 140 nm [2]
  • Distinctive spikes upon the surface that measure 9 nm to 12 nm which give virions the appearance of a solar corona, that is consistent with the Coronaviridae family [2]
  • Inclusion bodies that are filled with virus particles in membrane bound vesicles in cytoplasm of the respiratory epithelium [2] [42]

Molecular / cytogenetics description features of COVID-19 infection patients

  • It has been iterated that ISH, including RISH and FISH positive testing for SARS-CoV-2 antigen tend to be detected in pneumocytes, ciliated airway cells as well as upper airway epithelium in the acute phase [2] [43] [44]
  • It has been iterated that sample post-mortem examination pathology reports of COVID-19 infection usually tend to reveal the following: [2]
  • Diffuse alveolar damage due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection
  • Diffuse alveolar damage with changes that are       compatible with viral infection

Differential diagnoses

Some of the documented differential diagnoses of COVID-19 pulmonary disease include the following: [2]

  • Diffuse alveolar damage due to COVID-19 is stated to be morphologically indistinguishable from other DAD causes [45], including other viral pneumonias: cytomegalovirus, respiratory syncytial virus as well as herpes simplex virus.
  • Severe acute respiration distress syndrome in which detection of SARS virus needs to be undertaken to confirm the diagnosis.[2]
  • Acute respiratory distress syndrome of other aetiological causes [2]
  • Idiopathic acute interstitial pneumonia. [2]

Epidemiology of Acute Kidney Injury in COVID-19 Infection

  • It has been iterated that there is increasing evidence to demonstrate that there is a high prevalence of acute kidney injury (AKI) in COVID-19 patients [46] [47] [48]
  • It has been documented that the presentations of acute kidney injury are many and they do tend to include: proteinuria, haematuria, raised serum levels of serum creatinine (SCR), or blood urea nitrogen (BUN), to acute renal failure. [46] 
  • It has been intimated that a metanalysis of data related to COVID-19 infected patients had shown that more than half of the patients that constituted fifty seven percent (57%) of the patients who had COVID-19 infection had developed proteinuria, which was followed by raised serum levels of serum creatinine (Scr) that ranged between 9.6% and 15.5% and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels that ranged between 13.7% and 14.1% [46] [47] [49] 
  •  It has been stated that computed tomography (CT) that is undertaken in cases of cases of COVID-19 infection with kidney injury also demonstrates inflammation of kidney as well as oedema of kidney. [46] [50]
  • It has been documented that pathology examination of specimens of kidney of patients who have COVID-19 infection associated with acute kidney injury (AKI) does tend to show diffuse proximal convoluted tubule injury with loss of brush border as well as frank necrosis. [38] [46]. [51]. 
  • It has been iterated that in comparison with patients who have Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), the incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI) was 6.7% and 42% respectively. [46] [52] [53].
  • It has been documented that the incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI) related to COVID-19 infected patients was highly variable and that in the early cases that had been reported from China, COVID-19 patients who had acute kidney injury (AKI) was uncommon [46] [54-56],  and the incidence subsequently more severe with incidence rates that had varied from 25% to 29% in  patients who had been admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) [46, 56, 57] . 
  • It has been stated that large cohort studies related to COVID-19 infection that had been undertaken within the western countries did reveal that the incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI) had ranged between 27% and 37% [46] [58] [59], as well as the incidence subsequently became more severe which had amounted to 68% with regard to critically ill COVID-19 patients who had been admitted into the intensive care unit (ICU) within the New York city [60]. However, it is now clearly understood that the incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI) related to COVID-19 infected patients tends to be associated with the age of the patient, the smoking status of the patient, the cytokine storm, the severity of the COVID-19 disease, the ethnicity of the patient, and the history of diabetes mellitus, as well as hypertension, and cardiovascular disease of the patient [46] [48].
  • It has also been iterated that acute kidney injury (AKI) is an independent risk factor for the poor long-term renal outcome and mortality in critically ill COVID-19 infected patients [46] [60] [61].
  • It has been stated that during a follow-up study acute kidney injury (AKI) was found to be a major cause of in-hospital mortality. Furthermore, the complete kidney recovery rate of AKI in COVID-19 infection patients was found to be only about 30% to 4 [46]
  • 5

Conclusion

  • Even though majority of individuals who have been afflicted by COVID-19 have manifested with symptoms that simulate common cold, COVID-19 infections has also induced alveolar damages which have which has emanated in the production of progressive respiratory failure and fatalities in 6.4% of COVID-19 infection cases.
  • It is believed that direct viral injury, uncontrolled inflammation of coagulation, as well as complement cascades are postulated to participate in the pathogenesis of COVID-19 infection. 
  • Some patients who have been afflicted by COVID-19 infection have depicted kidney damage through the process of acute kidney injury (AKI), development of mild proteinuria, visible and non-visible haematuria, or slight elevation in their serum creatinine levels, possibly as an emanation of kidney tropism of the COVID-19 VIRUS as well as multi-organ failure. 
  • There reports of increasing clinical evidence which have indicated that acute kidney injury (AKI) does represent a common as well as severe complication which tends to develop with regard to patients with COVID-19 infection who are critically ill.   
  • Some of the risk factors in COVID-19 infected patients that have tended to be linked with the development of acute kidney injury (AKI) do include: the older age group, the severity of the COVID-19 infection, the ethnicity of the patient, the history of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, as well cardiovascular disease. Out of the aforementioned factors, inflammation could represent a key player in the pathogenesis of acute kidney injury (AKI) in patients who have been afflicted with COVID-19 infection. 
  • There is a postulated highly probability that SARS-COV-2 infection could trigger the activation of many inflammatory pathways that include: angiotensin II, cytokine storm such as interleukin-6, (IL-6), C-reactive protein (CRP), TGF-ß signaling, complement activation, as well as lung-kidney crosstalk to induce acute kidney injury (AKI). 
  • It would hence be considered that therapies that target the aforementioned inflammatory molecules as well as pathways with utilization of a monoclonal antibody against IL-6 (Tacilizumab), C3 inhibitor AMY-101, anti-C5 antibody, anti-TGF-ß OT-101, as well as utilization of CRRT in patients with COVID-19 infection who are critically ill, could represent novel as well as specific treatment options for acute kidney injury (AKI) with regard to COVID-19 infected patients. 
  • There is so far no consensus global opinion regarding any specific treatments for COVID-19 infection. 
  • The results of some research studies related to COVID-19 infection have reported many agents which might have potential efficacy against COVID-19 infection, and many of these molecules have depicted preliminary efficacy against COVID-19 infection and these are currently being tested in some clinical trials. 
  • Clinicians globally should be encouraged to report their experiences related to cases and case series of COVID-19 infections they managed so that more lessons would be learnt about COVID-19 infections and the biological behavior of COVID19. 

Conflict of interests

None 

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements to all individuals and research groups that have reported their experiences related to COVID-19 infection through out the world which has provided pivots for the understanding of the pathogenesis and biological behavior of COVID-19 infection affecting various organs of the human body.

References

  1. Mahreen Hussain, Tania Platero-Portillo, Olanrewaju Oni, Mai Elzieny, Kaveri Malik Khera, Hemlata Padharia, Nehemias Guevara Rodriguez. (2021) Gross, Histopathological, and Ultrastructural Features in Patients with COVID-19: A Literature Review. EMJ Micro
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  2. Yoshikawa A, Munkhdelger J, Bychkov A. (2021) COVID-19. PathologyOutlines.com website.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  3. CDC: Infection Control Guidance for Healthcare Professionals About Coronavirus (COVID-19 updated 2020 Jun 03;) [Accessed 4 August 2020]
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  4. Centers Control for Disease Control and Prevenion (CDC): Using Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) updated 2020 Jun 09; [Accessed 4 August 2020]
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  5. WHO: Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Situation Report - 1
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  6. WHO: Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Situation Report - 11 [Accessed 31 March 2020
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  7. Reuters: Global COVID-19 Cases Surpass 100 Million as Nations Tackle Vaccine Shortages [Accessed 27 January 2021])
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  8. Wiersinga WJ, Rhodes A, Cheng AC, Peacock SJ, Prescott HC. (2020) Pathophysiology, Transmission, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review. JAMA. 324(8):782-793. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.12839. PMID: 32648899.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  9. Wan Y, Shang J, Graham R, Baric RS, Li F. (2020) Receptor Recognition by the Novel Coronavirus from Wuhan: an Analysis Based on Decade-Long Structural Studies of SARS Coronavirus. J Virol. 94(7):e00127-20. doi: 10.1128/JVI.00127-20. PMID: 31996437; PMCID:
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  10. Bourgonje AR, Abdulle AE, Timens W, Hillebrands JL, Navis GJ, Gordijn SJ, Bolling MC, Dijkstra G, Voors AA, Osterhaus AD, van der Voort PH, Mulder DJ, van Goor H. (2020) Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), SARS-CoV-2 and the pathophysiology of coronav
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  11. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, Schiergens TS, Herrler G, Wu NH, Nitsche A, Müller MA, Drosten C, Pöhlmann S. (2020) SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  12. Dorward D, Russell C D, Um I H, Elshani M, et al. (2021) Tissue-specific Immunopathology (intolerance) in fatal Covid-19, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 203(2): 192 – 201. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.202008-3265OC
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  13. Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, et al. (2020) A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 579(7798):270-273. doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7. Epub 2020 Feb 3. PMID: 32015507; PMCID: PMC7095418.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  14. Lauer SA, Grantz KH, Bi Q, Jones FK, Zheng Q, et al. (2020) The Incubation Period of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) From Publicly Reported Confirmed Cases: Estimation and Application. Ann Intern Med. 172(9):577-582. doi: 10.7326/M20-0504. Epub 2020 M
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  15. He W, Yi GY, Zhu Y. (2020) Estimation of the basic reproduction number, average incubation time, asymptomatic infection rate, and case fatality rate for COVID-19: Meta-analysis and sensitivity analysis. J Med Virol. 92(11):2543-2550. doi: 10.1002/jmv.2604
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  16. Wu Z, McGoogan JM. (2020) Characteristics of and Important Lessons From the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Outbreak in China: Summary of a Report of 72 314 Cases From the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA. 323(13):1239-1242. doi
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  17. Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, Xia J, Zhou X, et al. (2020) Risk Factors Associated With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Death in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Intern Med. 180(7):934-943. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  18. Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, Zhu F, Liu X, et al. (2020) Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients With 2019 Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA. 323(11):1061-1069. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.1585. Erratum in: JAMA. 2021 Mar 16;325(1
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  19. Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Cardona-Ospina JA, Gutiérrez-Ocampo E, Villamizar-Peña R, Holguin-Rivera Y, et al. (2020) Latin American Network of Coronavirus Disease 2019-COVID-19 Research (LANCOVID-19).
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  20. Clinical, laboratory and imaging features of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis. 34:101623. doi: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101623. Epub 2020 Mar 13.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  21. CDC: Interim Guidelines for Collecting, Handling, and Testing Clinical Specimens from Persons for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Summary of Recent Changes CDC Saving Lives Protecting People Updates 2021 Feb 26.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  22. Wu SC, Tsang P. (2020) Microbiology & Parasitology Viruses. COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) testing. Topic Completed 2020 May 8 Minor Changes, PathologyOutlines.com website.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  23. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/lab/index.html
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  24. Wang W, Xu Y, Gao R, Lu R, Han K, Wu G, Tan W. (2020) Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Different Types of Clinical Specimens. JAMA. 323(18):1843-1844. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.3786.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  25. Pan F, Ye T, Sun P, Gui S, Liang B, et al. (2020) Time Course of Lung Changes at Chest CT during Recovery from Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Radiology. 295(3):715-721. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2020200370. Epub 2020 Feb 13.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  26. Ruan Q, Yang K, Wang W, Jiang L, Song J. (2020) Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on an analysis of data of 150 patients from Wuhan, China. Intensive Care Med. 46(5):846-848. doi: 10.1007/s00134-020-05991-x. Epub 2020 Mar 3.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  27. Zheng Z, Peng F, Xu B, Zhao J, Liu H, et al. (2020) Risk factors of critical & mortal COVID-19 cases: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 81(2):e16-e25. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.04.021. Epub 2020 Apr 23.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  28. Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, Fan G, Liu Y, et al. (2020) Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 395(10229):1054-1062. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30566-3. Epub 2020 Mar
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  29. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim Clinical Guidance for Management of Patients with Confirmed Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) CDC 24/7 Saving Lives Protecting People. Updated 2021 Feb 16.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  30. World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) technical guidance: Patient management. Clinical management COVID-19.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  31. NIH. COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines. Corticosteroids. Last updated 2021 Aug 4;
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  32. Hanley B, Lucas SB, Youd E, Swift B, Osborn M. (2020) Autopsy in suspected COVID-19 cases. J Clin Pathol. 73(5):239-242. doi: 10.1136/jclinpath-2020-206522. Epub 2020 Mar 20. PMID: 32198191.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  33. Polak SB, Van Gool IC, Cohen D, von der Thüsen JH, van Paassen J. (2020) A systematic review of pathological findings in COVID-19: a pathophysiological timeline and possible mechanisms of disease progression. Mod Pathol. 33(11):2128-2138. doi: 10.1038/s41
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  34. Xu Z, Shi L, Wang Y, Zhang J, Huang L, et al. (2020) Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Lancet Respir Med. 8(4):420-422. doi: 10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30076-X. Epub 2020 Feb 18. Erratum in: Lancet Respir Me
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  35. Tian S, Hu W, Niu L, Liu H, Xu H, Xiao SY. (2020) Pulmonary Pathology of Early-Phase 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pneumonia in Two Patients With Lung Cancer. J Thorac Oncol. 15(5):700-704. doi: 10.1016/j.jtho.2020.02.010.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  36. Tian S, Xiong Y, Liu H, Niu L, Guo J, Liao M, Xiao S-Y. (2020)  Pathological study of the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) through postmortem core biopsies. Mod Pathol, 33: 1007–1014
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  37. von der Thüsen J, van der Eerden M. (2020) Histopathology and genetic susceptibility in COVID-19 pneumonia. Eur J Clin Invest. 50(7):e13259. doi: 10.1111/eci.13259. Epub 2020 Jun 27.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  38. Bradley BT, Maioli H, Johnston R, Chaudhry I, Fink SL, et al. (2020) Histopathology and ultrastructural findings of fatal COVID-19 infections in Washington State: a case series. Lancet. 396(10247):320-332. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31305-2. Epub 2020 Jul
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  39. Su H, Yang M, Wan C, Yi LX, Tang F, et al. (2020) Renal histopathological analysis of 26 postmortem findings of patients with COVID-19 in China. Kidney Int. 98(1):219-227. doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2020.04.003. Epub 2020 Apr 9.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  40. Prieto-Pérez L, Fortes J, Soto C, Vidal-González Á, Alonso-Riaño M, et al. (2020) Histiocytic hyperplasia with hemophagocytosis and acute alveolar damage in COVID-19 infection. Mod Pathol. 33(11):2139-2146. doi: 10.1038/s41379-020-0613-1.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  41. Giani M, Seminati D, Lucchini A, Foti G, Pagni F. (2020) Exuberant Plasmocytosis in Bronchoalveolar Lavage Specimen of the First Patient Requiring Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for SARS-CoV-2 in Europe. J Thorac Oncol. 15(5):e65-e66. doi: 10.1016/j.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  42. Schaefer IM, Padera RF, Solomon IH, Kanjilal S, Hammer MM, Hornick JL, Sholl LM. (2020) In situ detection of SARS-CoV-2 in lungs and airways of patients with COVID-19. Mod Pathol. 33(11):2104-2114. doi: 10.1038/s41379-020-0595-z. Epub 2020 Jun 19. ]
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  43. Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, et al. (2020) China Novel Coronavirus Investigating and Research Team. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl. J Med. 382(8):727-733. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001017. Epub 2020 Jan 24.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  44. Best Rocha A, Stroberg E, Barton LM, Duval EJ, Mukhopadhyay S, Yarid N, Caza T, Wilson JD, Kenan DJ, Kuperman M, Sharma SG, Larsen CP. (2020) Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue sections using commercially available reagents
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  45. Liu J, Babka AM, Kearney BJ, Radoshitzky SR, Kuhn JH, Zeng X. (2020) Molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded specimens. JCI Insight. 5(12):e139042. doi: 10.1172/jci.insight.139042.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  46. Konopka KE, Nguyen T, Jentzen JM, Rayes O, Schmidt CJ, Wilson AM, Farver CF, Myers JL. (2020) Diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) resulting from coronavirus disease 2019 Infection is Morphologically Indistinguishable from Other Causes of DAD. Histopathology. 77
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  47. Chen J, Wang W, Tang Y, Huang X-R, Yu X, Lan H Y. (2021) Inflammatory stress in SARS-COV-2 associated Acute Kidney Injury. International Journal of Biological Sciences, 16(6): 1497 – 1506.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  48. Yang X, Jin Y, Li R, Zhang Z, Sun R, Chen D. (2020) Prevalence and impact of acute renal impairment on COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 24:356.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  49. Stasi A, Castellano G, Ranieri E, Ranieri E, Infante B, Stallone G, Gesualdo L, Hetti G S. (2020) SARS-CoV-2 and Viral Sepsis: Immune Dysfunction and Implications in Kidney Failure. J Clin Med. 9:4057. 1 – 23.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  50. Cheng Y, Luo R, Wang K, Zhang M, Wang Z, Dong L, Li J, Yao Y, Ge S, Xu G. (2020) Kidney disease is associated with in-hospital death of patients with COVID-19. Kidney Int. 220 May;97(5):829-838. doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2020.03.005 Epub 2020 Mar 20. PMID: 3224
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  51. Li Z, Wu M, Yao J, Guo J, Liao X, et al. (2020) Caution on Kidney Dysfunction of COVID-19 Patients. MedRxiv 
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  52. Diao B, Wang C, Wang R, Feng Z, Tan Y, et al. (2020) Human Kidney is a Target for Novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Infection. medRxiv.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  53. Chu K H, Tsang W K, Tang CS, Lam M F, Lai F M, et al. (2005) Acute renal impairment in coronavirus-associated severe acute respiratory syndrome. Kidney Int. 67(2):698-705. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.67130.x.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  54. Zhou S, Xu J, Xue C, Yang B, Mao Z, Ong ACM. (2020) Coronavirus-associated kidney outcomes in COVID-19, SARS, and MERS: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Ren Fail. 43(1):1-15. doi: 10.1080/0886022X.2020.1847724.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  55. Wang L, Li X, Chen H, Yan S, Li D, Li Y, Gong Z. (2020) Coronavirus Disease 19 Infection Does Not Result in Acute Kidney Injury: An Analysis of 116 Hospitalized Patients from Wuhan, China. Am J Nephrol. 51(5):343-348. doi: 10.1159/000507471. Epub 2020 Mar
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  56. Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, Liang WH, Ou CQ, et al, (2020) China Medical Treatment Expert Group for Covid-19. Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med. 382(18):1708-1720. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2002032. Epub 2020 Feb 28..
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  57. Pei G, Zhang Z, Peng J, Liu L, Zhang C, et al. (2020) Renal Involvement and Early Prognosis in Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia. J Am Soc Nephrol. 31(6):1157-1165. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2020030276. Epub 2020 Apr 28.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  58. Yu Y, Xu D, Fu S, Zhang J, Yang X, et al. (2020) Patients with COVID-19 in 19 ICUs in Wuhan, China: a cross-sectional study. Crit Care. 24(1):219. doi: 10.1186/s13054-020-02939-x.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  59. Hirsch J S, Ng J H, Ross D W, Sharma P, Shah H H, Barnett R L, Hazzan A D, Fishbane S, Jhaveri K D (2020) Northwell COVID-19 Research Consortium; Northwell Nephrology COVID-19 Research Consortium. Acute kidney injury in patients hospitalized with COVID-19
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  60. Richardson S, Hirsch J S, Narasimhan M, Crawford J M, McGinn T, et al. (2020) Presenting Characteristics, Comorbidities, and Outcomes Among 5700 Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19 in the New York City Area. JAMA. 323(20):2052-2059. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  61. Chan L, Chaudhary K, Saha A, Chauhan K, Vaid A, et al. (2021) Acute Kidney Injury in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19. medRxiv [Preprint]. 8:2020.05.04.20090944, J Am Soc Nephrol. 2021 Jan;32(1):151-160..
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  62. Tang Y, Chen J, Huang K, Luo D, Liang P, Feng M, Chai W, Fung E, Lan H Y, Xu A. (2017) The incidence, risk factors and in-hospital mortality of acute kidney injury in patients after abdominal aortic aneurysm repair surgery. BMC Nephrol. 18:184.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  63. Pei G, Zhang Z, Peng J, Liu L, Zhang C, et al. (2020) Renal Involvement and Early Prognosis in Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia. J Am Soc Nephrol. 31(6):1157-1165. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2020030276. Epub 2020 Apr 28.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  64. Chan L, Chaudhary K, Saha A, Chauhan K, Vaid A, et al. (2021) Acute Kidney Injury in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19. medRxiv [Preprint]. 8:2020.05.04.20090944. J Am Soc Nephrol. 32(1):151-160.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  65. Ng J H, Hirsch J S, Hazzan A, Wanchoo R, Shah H H, et al. (2021) Northwell Nephrology COVID-19 Research Consortium. Outcomes Among Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19 and Acute Kidney Injury. Am J Kidney Dis. 77(2):204-215.e1. doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2020.09.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  66. Staico M F, Zaffanello M, Di Pietro G, Fanos V, Marcialis M A. (2020) The kidney in COVID-19: protagonist or figurant? Panminerva Med. doi: 10.23736/S0031-0808.20.03965-8. Epub ahead of print.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  67. Wan Y, Shang J, Graham R, Baric RS, Li F. (2020) Receptor Recognition by the Novel Coronavirus from Wuhan: an Analysis Based on Decade-Long Structural Studies of SARS Coronavirus. J Virol. 94(7):e00127-20. doi: 10.1128/JVI.00127-20. PMID: 31996437; PMCID:
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  68. Wrapp D, Wang N, Corbett K S, Goldsmith J A, Hsieh C L, Abiona O, Graham B S, McLellan J S. (2020) Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science. 367(6483):1260-1263. doi: 10.1126/science.abb2507. Epub 2020 Feb 19.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  69. Wu H, Uchimura K, Donnelly E L, Kirita Y, Morris S A, Humphreys B D. (2018) Comparative Analysis and Refinement of Human PSC-Derived Kidney Organoid Differentiation with Single-Cell Transcriptomics. Cell Stem Cell. 23(6):869-881.e8. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.20
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  70. Braun F, Lütgehetmann M, Pfefferle S, Wong M N, Carsten A, et al. (2020) SARS-CoV-2 renal tropism associates with acute kidney injury. Lancet. 396(10251):597-598. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31759-1.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  71. Ni J, Yang F, Huang X R, Meng J, Chen J, et al. (2020) Dual deficiency of angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 and Mas receptor enhances angiotensin II-induced hypertension and hypertensive nephropathy. J Cell Mol Med. 24(22):13093-13103. doi: 10.1111/jcmm.159
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  72. Santos R A S, Sampaio W O, Alzamora A C, Motta-Santos D, Alenina N, Bader M, Campagnole-Santos M J. (2018) The ACE2/Angiotensin-(1-7)/MAS Axis of the Renin-Angiotensin System: Focus on Angiotensin-(1-7). Physiol Rev. 98(1):505-553. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  73. Malha L, Mueller F B, Pecker M S, Mann S J, August P, Feig P U. (2020) COVID-19 and the Renin-Angiotensin System. Kidney Int Rep. 5(5):563-565. doi: 10.1016/j.ekir.2020.03.024.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  74. Verdecchia P, Cavallini C, Spanevello A, Angeli F. (2020) The pivotal link between ACE2 deficiency and SARS-CoV-2 infection. Eur J Intern Med. 76:14-20. doi: 10.1016/j.ejim.2020.04.037. Epub 2020 Apr 20.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  75. Mizuiri S, Ohashi Y. (2015) ACE and ACE2 in kidney disease. World J Nephrol. 4(1):74-82. doi: 10.5527/wjn.v4.i1.74.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  76. Kontogiannis J, Burns K D. (1998) Role of AT1 angiotensin II receptors in renal ischemic injury. Am J Physiol. 274(1):F79-90. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.1998.274.1.F79.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  77. Jerkić M, Miloradović Z, Jovović D, Mihailović-Stanojević N, Elena JV, et al. (2004) Relative roles of endothelin-1 and angiotensin II in experimental post-ischaemic acute renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 19(1):83-94. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfg521. PMID:
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  78. Mackie F E, Campbell D J, Meyer T W. (2001) Intrarenal angiotensin and bradykinin peptide levels in the remnant kidney model of renal insufficiency. Kidney Int. 59(4):1458-65.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  79. da Silveira K D, Pompermayer Bosco K S, Diniz L R, Carmona A K, Cassali G D, et al. (2010) ACE2-angiotensin-(1-7)-Mas axis in renal ischaemia/reperfusion injury in rats. Clin Sci (Lond). 119(9):385-94. doi: 10.1042/CS20090554. PMID: 20528771.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  80. Reddy R, Asante I, Liu S, Parikh P, Liebler J, Borok Z, Rodgers K, Baydur A, Louie SG. (2019) Circulating angiotensin peptides levels in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome correlate with clinical outcomes: A pilot study. PLoS One. 14(3):e0213096. doi: 10
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  81. Lippi G, Wong J, Henry B M. (2020) Hypertension in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a pooled analysis. Pol Arch Intern Med. 130(4):304-309. doi: 10.20452/pamw.15272. Epub.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  82. Guo W, Li M, Dong Y, Zhou H, Zhang Z, et al. (2020) Diabetes is a risk factor for the progression and prognosis of COVID-19. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. e3319. doi: 10.1002/dmrr.3319. Epub ahead of print.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  83. Schoen K, Horvat N, Guerreiro N F C, de Castro I, de Giassi K S. (2019) Spectrum of clinical and radiographic findings in patients with diagnosis of H1N1 and correlation with clinical severity. BMC Infect Dis. 19(1):964. doi: 10.1186/s12879-019-4592-0.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  84. Yang J K, Feng Y, Yuan M Y, Yuan S Y, Fu H J, et al. (2006) Plasma glucose levels and diabetes are independent predictors for mortality and morbidity in patients with SARS. Diabet Med. 23(6):623-628. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2006.01861.x.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  85. Banik G R, Alqahtani A S, Booy R, Rashid H. (2016) Risk factors for severity and mortality in patients with MERS-CoV: Analysis of publicly available data from Saudi Arabia. Virol Sin. 31(1):81-4. doi: 10.1007/s12250-015-3679-z.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  86. Onder G, Rezza G, Brusaferro S. (2020) Case-Fatality Rate and Characteristics of Patients Dying in Relation to COVID-19 in Italy. JAMA. 323(18):1775-1776. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.4683. Erratum in: JAMA. 2020 Apr 28;323(16):1619.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  87. Hansrivijit P, Qian C, Boonpheng B, Thongprayoon C, Vallabhajosyula S, Cheungpasitporn W, Ghahramani N. (2020) Incidence of acute kidney injury and its association with mortality in patients with COVID-19: a meta-analysis. J Investig Med. 68(7):1261-1270.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  88. Hussain A, Bhowmik B, do Vale Moreira NC. (2020) COVID-19 and diabetes: Knowledge in progress. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 162:108142. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2020.108142. Epub 2020 Apr 9.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  89. Shoelson S E, Lee J, Yuan M. (20032) Inflammation and the IKK beta/I kappa B/NF-kappa B axis in obesity- and diet-induced insulin resistance. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 27 Suppl 3:S49-52. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802501.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  90. Ott C, Jacobs K, Haucke E, Navarrete Santos A, Grune T, Simm A. (2014) Role of advanced glycation end products in cellular signaling. Redox Biol. 2:411-29. doi: 10.1016/j.redox.2013.12.016.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  91. Guo W, Li M, Dong Y, Zhou H, Zhang Z, et al. (2020) Diabetes is a risk factor for the progression and prognosis of COVID-19. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. e3319. doi: 10.1002/dmrr.3319. Epub ahead of print.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  92. Tikellis C, Pickering R, Tsorotes D, Du X J, Kiriazis H, et al. (2012) Interaction of diabetes and ACE2 in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease in experimental diabetes. Clin Sci (Lond). 123(8):519-29. doi: 10.1042/CS20110668.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  93. Yang J K, Lin S S, Ji X J, Guo L M. (2010) Binding of SARS coronavirus to its receptor damages islets and causes acute diabetes. Acta Diabetologica. 47(3):193-199. doi: 10.1007/s00592-009-0109-4. Epub 2009 Mar 31.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  94. Mehta P, McAuley DF, Brown M, Sanchez E, Tattersall RS, Manson JJ (2020) HLH Across Speciality Collaboration, UK. COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. Lancet. 395(10229):1033-1034. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30628-0. Epub 202
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  95. Stebbing J, Phelan A, Griffin I, Tucker C, Oechsle O, Smith D, Richardson P. (2020) COVID-19: combining antiviral and anti-inflammatory treatments. Lancet Infect Dis. 20(4):400-402. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30132-8. Epub 2020 Feb 27.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  96. Moore J B, June C H. (2020) Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID-19. Science. 368(6490):473-474. doi: 10.1126/science.abb8925. Epub 2020 Apr 17.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  97. Ye Q, Wang B, Mao J. (2020) The pathogenesis and treatment of the `Cytokine Storm' in COVID-19. J Infect. 80(6):607-613. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.037. Epub 2020 Apr 10. PMID: 32283152.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  98. Tufan A, Avanoğlu Güler A, Matucci-Cerinic M. (2020) COVID-19, immune system response, hyperinflammation and repurposing antirheumatic drugs. Turk J Med Sci. 50(SI-1):620-632. doi: 10.3906/sag-2004-168.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  99. Channappanavar R, Perlman S. (2017) Pathogenic human coronavirus infections: causes and consequences of cytokine storm and immunopathology. Semin Immunopathol. 39(5):529-539. doi: 10.1007/s00281-017-0629-x. Epub 2017 May 2.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  100. Fehr A R, Channappanavar R, Perlman S. (2017) Middle East Respiratory Syndrome: Emergence of a Pathogenic Human Coronavirus. Annu Rev Med. 68:387-399. doi: 10.1146/annurev-med-051215-031152. Epub 2016 Aug 26. PMID: 27576010; PMCID: PMC5353356.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  101. Lipworth B, Chan R, Lipworth S, RuiWen Kuo C. (2020) Weathering the Cytokine Storm in Susceptible Patients with Severe SARS-CoV-2 Infection. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 8(6):1798-1801. doi: 10.1016/j.jaip.2020.04.014. Epub 2020 Apr 18.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  102. Wong C K, Lam C W, Wu A K, Ip W K, Lee NL, et al. (2020) Plasma inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin Exp Immunol. 136(1):95-103. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02415.x.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  103. Min C K, Cheon S, Ha N Y, Sohn K M, Kim Y, et al. (2016) Comparative and kinetic analysis of viral shedding and immunological responses in MERS patients representing a broad spectrum of disease severity. Sci Rep. 6:25359. doi: 10.1038/srep25359.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  104. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, et al. (2020) Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 395(10223):497-506. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5. Epub 2020 Jan 24. Erratum in: Lancet. 2020 Jan 30.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  105. Yang Y SC, LI JX, et al. (2020) Exuberant elevation of IP-10, MCP-3 and IL-1ra during SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with disease severity and fatal outcome. medRxiv.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  106. Ahmed A R, Ebad C A, Stoneman S, Satti M M, Conlon P J. (2020) Kidney injury in COVID-19. World J Nephrol. 9(2):18-32. doi: 10.5527/wjn.v9.i2.18.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  107. Chong W H, Saha B K. (2021) Relationship Between Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the Etiology of Acute Kidney Injury (AKI). Am J Med Sci. 361(3):287-296. doi: 10.1016/j.amjms.2020.10.025.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  108. Ramos-Casals M, Brito-Zerón P, López-Guillermo A, Khamashta MA, Bosch X. (2014) Adult haemophagocytic syndrome. Lancet. 383(9927):1503-1516. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61048-X. Epub 2013 Nov 27. Erratum in: Lancet. 2014 Apr 26;383(9927):1464.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  109. Aulagnon F, Lapidus N, Canet E, Galicier L, Boutboul D, et al. (2015) Acute kidney injury in adults with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Am J Kidney Dis. 65(6):851-9. doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2014.10.012. Epub 2014 Nov 4.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  110. Karras A. (2009) What nephrologists need to know about hemophagocytic syndrome. Nat Rev Nephrol. 5(6):329-36. doi: 10.1038/nrneph.2009.73.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  111. McGonagle D, Sharif K, O'Regan A, Bridgewood C. (2020) The Role of Cytokines including Interleukin-6 in COVID-19 induced Pneumonia and Macrophage Activation Syndrome-Like Disease. Autoimmun Rev. 19(6):102537. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102537.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  112. Dimopoulos G, de Mast Q, Markou N, Theodorakopoulou M, Komnos A, et al. (2020) Favorable Anakinra Responses in Severe Covid-19 Patients with Secondary Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis. Cell Host Microbe. 28(1):117-123.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2020.05.007
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  113. Xia P, Wen Y, Duan Y, Su H, Cao W, et al. (2020) Clinicopathological Features and Outcomes of Acute Kidney Injury in Critically Ill COVID-19 with Prolonged Disease Course: A Retrospective Cohort. J Am Soc Nephrol. 31(9):2205-2221. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2020040
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  114. Zhang Y, Xiao M, Zhang S, Xia P, Cao W, et al. (2020) Coagulopathy and Antiphospholipid Antibodies in Patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 382(17):e38. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc2007575.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  115. Chen X, Zhao B, Qu Y, Chen Y, Xiong J, et al. (2020) Detectable Serum Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Viral Load (RNAemia) Is Closely Correlated With Drastically Elevated Interleukin 6 Level in Critically Ill Patients With Coronavirus Dise
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  116. Fara A, Mitrev Z, Rosalia R A, Assas B M. (2020) Cytokine storm and COVID-19: a chronicle of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Open Biol. 10(9):200160. doi: 10.1098/rsob.200160.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  117. Ji P, Zhu J, Zhong Z, Li H, Pang J, Li B, Zhang J. (2020) Association of elevated inflammatory markers and severe COVID-19: A meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 99(47):e23315.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  118. Zeng F, Huang Y, Guo Y, Yin M, Chen X, Xiao L, Deng G. (2020) Association of inflammatory markers with the severity of COVID-19: A meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 96:467-474. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.05.055
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  119. Chen L, Liu H G, Liu W, Liu J, Liu K, Shang J, Deng Y, Wei S. (2020) Analysis of clinical features of 29 patients with 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi. 43(3):203-208. Chinese. doi: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1001-0939.2020.03.013
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  120. Luo X, Zhou W, Yan X, Guo T, Wang B, et al. (2020) Prognostic Value of C-Reactive Protein in Patients With Coronavirus 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 71(16):2174-2179. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa641.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  121. Herold T, Jurinovic V, Arnreich C, Lipworth B J, Hellmuth J C, von Bergwelt-Baildon M, Klein M, Weinberger T. (2020) Elevated levels of IL-6 and CRP predict the need for mechanical ventilation in COVID-19. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 146(1):128-136.e4. doi: 1
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  122. Yan Q, Zuo P, Cheng L, Li Y, Song K, et al. (2021) Acute Kidney Injury Is Associated With In-hospital Mortality in Older Patients With COVID-19. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 76(3):456-462. doi: 10.1093/gerona/glaa181.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  123. Chae MS, Kim Y, Chung HS, Park CS, Lee J, Choi JH, Hong SH. (2018) Predictive Role of Serum Cytokine Profiles in Acute Kidney Injury after Living Donor Liver Transplantation. Mediators Inflamm. 2018:8256193. doi: 10.1155/2018/8256193.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  124. Zhang W R, Garg A X, Coca S G, Devereaux P J, Eikelboom J, et al. (2015) TRIBE-AKI Consortium. Plasma IL-6 and IL-10 Concentrations Predict AKI and Long-Term Mortality in Adults after Cardiac Surgery. J Am Soc Nephrol. 26(12):3123-32. doi: 10.1681/ASN.201
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  125. Greenberg J H, Whitlock R, Zhang W R, Thiessen-Philbrook H R, Zappitelli M, et al. (2015) TRIBE-AKI Consortium. Interleukin-6 and interleukin-10 as acute kidney injury biomarkers in pediatric cardiac surgery. Pediatr Nephrol. 30(9):1519-27. doi: 10.1007/s
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  126. Kielar M L, John R, Bennett M, Richardson J A, Shelton J M, et al. (2005) Maladaptive role of IL-6 in ischemic acute renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 16(11):3315-3325. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2003090757.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  127. Patel N S, Chatterjee P K, Di Paola R, Mazzon E, Britti D, et al. (2005) Endogenous interleukin-6 enhances the renal injury, dysfunction, and inflammation caused by ischemia/reperfusion. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 312(3):1170-8. doi: 10.1124/jpet.104.078659.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  128. Lemay S, Rabb H, Postler G, Singh AK. (2000) Prominent and sustained up-regulation of gp130-signaling cytokines and the chemokine MIP-2 in murine renal ischemia-reperfusion injury. Transplantation. 69(5):959-63. doi: 10.1097/00007890-200003150-00049.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  129. Joseph A, Zafrani L, Mabrouki A, Azoulay E, Darmon M. (2020) Acute kidney injury in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Ann Intensive Care. 10(1):117. doi: 10.1186/s13613-020-00734-z.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  130. Wang X, Chen X, Tang F, Luo W, Fang J, Qi C, Sun H, Xiao H, Peng X, Shao J. (2021) Be aware of acute kidney injury in critically ill children with COVID-19. Pediatr Nephrol. 36(1):163-169. doi: 10.1007/s00467-020-04715-z.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  131. Villa, G., Romagnoli, S., De Rosa, S. et al. (2020) Blood purification therapy with a hemodiafilter featuring enhanced adsorptive properties for cytokine removal in patients presenting COVID-19: a pilot study. Crit Care 24, 605 (2020).
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  132. Han SS, Kim DK, Kim S, Chin HJ, Chae DW, Na KY. (2017) C-Reactive Protein Predicts Acute Kidney Injury and Death After Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting. Ann Thorac Surg. 104(3):804-810. doi: 10.1016/j.athoracsur.2017.01.075.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  133. Cosentino N, Genovese S, Campodonico J, Bonomi A, Lucci C, et al. (2019) High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein and Acute Kidney Injury in Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction: A Prospective Observational Study. J Clin Med. 8(12):2192. doi: 10.3390/jcm8
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  134. Fu E L, Franko M A, Obergfell A, Dekker F W, Gabrielsen A, et al. (2019) High-sensitivity C-reactive protein and the risk of chronic kidney disease progression or acute kidney injury in post-myocardial infarction patients. Am Heart J. 216:20-29. doi: 10.1
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  135. Shacham Y, Leshem-Rubinow E, Steinvil A, Keren G, Roth A, Arbel Y. (2015) High sensitive C-reactive protein and the risk of acute kidney injury among ST elevation myocardial infarction patients undergoing primary percutaneous intervention. Clin Exp Nephro
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  136. Verma S. (2004) C-reactive protein incites atherosclerosis. Can J Cardiol. 20 Suppl B:29B-31B.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  137. Pegues M A, McCrory M A, Zarjou A, Szalai A J. (2013) C-reactive protein exacerbates renal ischemia-reperfusion injury. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 304(11):F1358-65. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00476.2012.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  138. Tang Y, Huang X R, Lv J, Chung A C, Zhang Y, et al. (2014) C-reactive protein promotes acute kidney injury by impairing G1/S-dependent tubular epithelium cell regeneration. Clin Sci (Lond). 126(9):645-59. doi: 10.1042/CS20130471.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  139. Bian A, Shi M, Flores B, Gillings N, Li P, et al. (2017) Downregulation of autophagy is associated with severe ischemia-reperfusion-induced acute kidney injury in overexpressing C-reactive protein mice. PLoS One. 12(9):e0181848. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  140. Lai W, Tang Y, Huang X R, Ming-Kuen Tang P, Xu A, Szalai A J, Lou T Q, Lan H Y. (2016) C-reactive protein promotes acute kidney injury via Smad3-dependent inhibition of CDK2/cyclin E. Kidney Int. 90(3):610-26. doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2016.06.010. Epub 2016 Ju
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  141. Li Z I, Chung A C, Zhou L, Huang X R, Liu F, et al. (2011) C-reactive protein promotes acute renal inflammation and fibrosis in unilateral ureteral obstructive nephropathy in mice. Lab Invest. 91(6):837-51. doi: 10.1038/labinvest.2011.42.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  142. Taha M, Sano D, Hanoudi S, Esber Z, Elahi M, Gabali A, Chopra T, Draghici S, Samavati L. (2021) Platelets and renal failure in the SARS-CoV-2 syndrome. Platelets. 32(1):130-137. doi: 10.1080/09537104.2020.1817361.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  143. Hamer M, Kivimäki M, Gale C R, Batty G D. (2020) Lifestyle risk factors, inflammatory mechanisms, and COVID-19 hospitalization: A community-based cohort study of 387,109 adults in UK. Brain Behav Immun. 87:184-187. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.059.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  144. Tan C, Huang Y, Shi F, Tan K, Ma Q, Chen Y, Jiang X, Li X. (2020) C-reactive protein correlates with computed tomographic findings and predicts severe COVID-19 early. J Med Virol. 92(7):856-862. doi: 10.1002/jmv.25871.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  145. Meng X M, Nikolic-Paterson D J, Lan H Y. (2016) TGF-β: the master regulator of fibrosis. Nat Rev Nephrol. 12(6):325-38. doi: 10.1038/nrneph.2016.48.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  146. Doher M P, Torres de Carvalho F R, Scherer P F, Matsui T N, Ammirati A L, et al. (2021) Acute Kidney Injury and Renal Replacement Therapy in Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients: Risk Factors and Outcomes: A Single-Center Experience in Brazil. Blood Purif. 50
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  147. Malik P, Patel U, Mehta D, Patel N, Kelkar R, Akrmah M, Gabrilove J L, Sacks H. (2021) Biomarkers and outcomes of COVID-19 hospitalisations: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Evid Based Med. 26(3):107-108. doi: 10.1136/bmjebm-2020-111536.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  148. Vena A, Giacobbe D R, Di Biagio A, Mikulska M, Taramasso L, et al. (2020) GECOVID study group. Clinical characteristics, management and in-hospital mortality of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 in Genoa, Italy. Clin Microbiol Infect. 26(11):1537-154
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  149. Gu Y Y, Liu X S, Huang X R, Yu X Q, Lan H Y. (2020) TGF-β in renal fibrosis: triumphs and challenges. Future Med Chem. 12(9):853-866. doi: 10.4155/fmc-2020-0005.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  150. Zhao X, Nicholls J M, Chen YG. (2008) Severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus nucleocapsid protein interacts with Smad3 and modulates transforming growth factor-beta signaling. J Biol Chem. 283(6):3272-3280. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M708033200.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  151. Li S W, Wang C Y, Jou Y J, Yang T C, Huang S H, Wan L, Lin Y J, Lin C W. (2016) SARS coronavirus papain-like protease induces Egr-1-dependent up-regulation of TGF-β1 via ROS/p38 MAPK/STAT3 pathway. Sci Rep. 6:25754. doi: 10.1038/srep25754.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  152. Ghazavi A, Ganji A, Keshavarzian N, Rabiemajd S, Mosayebi G. (2021) Cytokine profile and disease severity in patients with COVID-19. Cytokine. 137:155323. doi: 10.1016/j.cyto.2020.155323.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  153. Agrati C, Sacchi A, Bordoni V, Cimini E, Notari S. et al. (2020) Expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in patients with severe coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Cell Death Differ. 27(11):3196-3207. doi: 10.1038/s41418-020-0572-6.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  154. Xiong Y, Liu Y, Cao L, Wang D, Guo M, et al. (2020) Transcriptomic characteristics of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in COVID-19 patients. Emerg Microbes Infect. 9(1):761-770. doi: 10.1080/22221751.2020.1747363.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  155. Ferreira-Gomes M, Kruglov A, Durek P, Heinrich F, Tizian C, et al. (2021) SARS-CoV-2 in severe COVID-19 induces a TGF-β-dominated chronic immune response that does not target itself. Nat Commun. 12(1):1961.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  156. Barnes B J, Adrover J M, Baxter-Stoltzfus A, Borczuk A, Cools-Lartigue J, et al. (2020) Targeting potential drivers of COVID-19: Neutrophil extracellular traps. J Exp Med. 217(6):e20200652. doi: 10.1084/jem.20200652.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  157. Zhang Y Y, Tang P M, Tang P C, Xiao J, Huang X R, Yu C, Ma R C W, Lan H Y. (2019) LRNA9884, a Novel Smad3-Dependent Long Noncoding RNA, Promotes Diabetic Kidney Injury in db/db Mice via Enhancing MCP-1-Dependent Renal Inflammation. Diabetes. 68(7):1485-14
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  158. Turner M, Chantry D, Feldmann M. (1990) Transforming growth factor beta induces the production of interleukin 6 by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Cytokine. 2(3):211-6. doi: 10.1016/1043-4666(90)90018-o.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  159. Yu H Q, Sun B Q, Fang Z F, Zhao J C, Liu X Y, et al. (2020) Distinct features of SARS-CoV-2-specific IgA response in COVID-19 patients. Eur Respir J. 56(2):2001526. doi: 10.1183/13993003.01526-2020.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  160. Gewin L, Vadivelu S, Neelisetty S, Srichai M B, Paueksakon P, Pozzi A, Harris R C, Zent R. (2012) Deleting the TGF-β receptor attenuates acute proximal tubule injury. J Am Soc Nephrol. 23(12):2001-2011. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2012020139.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  161. Yang Q, Ren GL, Wei B, Jin J, Huang X R, et al. (2019) Conditional knockout of TGF-βRII /Smad2 signals protects against acute renal injury by alleviating cell necroptosis, apoptosis and inflammation. Theranostics. 9(26):8277-8293. doi: 10.7150/thno.35686.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  162. Denney L, Branchett W, Gregory L G, Oliver R A, Lloyd C M. (2018) Epithelial-derived TGF-β1 acts as a pro-viral factor in the lung during influenza A infection. Mucosal Immunol. 11(2):523-535. doi: 10.1038/mi.2017.77. Epub 2017 Oct 25. PMID: 29067998; PMC
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  163. Nath K A, Croatt A J, Warner G M, Grande J P. (2011) Genetic deficiency of Smad3 protects against murine ischemic acute kidney injury. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 301(2):F436-42. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00162.2011.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  164. Wang W, Huang X R, Canlas E, Oka K, Truong L D, et al. (2006) Essential role of Smad3 in angiotensin II-induced vascular fibrosis. Circ Res. 98(8):1032-1039. doi: 10.1161/01.RES.0000218782.52610.dc.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  165. Li J H, Huang X R, Zhu H J, Oldfield M, Cooper M, et al. (2004) Advanced glycation end products activate Smad signaling via TGF-beta-dependent and independent mechanisms: implications for diabetic renal and vascular disease. FASEB J. 18(1):176-178. doi: 1
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  166. You Y K, Huang X R, Chen H Y, Lyu X F, Liu H F, Lan H Y. (2016) C-Reactive Protein Promotes Diabetic Kidney Disease in db/db Mice via the CD32b-Smad3-mTOR signaling Pathway. Sci Rep. 6:26740. doi: 10.1038/srep26740. PMID: 27221338; PMCID: PMC4879671.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  167. Matsuura I, Denissova N G, Wang G, He D, Long J, Liu F. (2004) Cyclin-dependent kinases regulate the antiproliferative function of Smads. Nature. 430(6996):226-231. doi: 10.1038/nature02650. PMID: 15241418.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  168. Fu S, Tang Y, Huang X R, Feng M, Xu A P, Lan H Y. (2017) Smad7 protects against acute kidney injury by rescuing tubular epithelial cells from the G1 cell cycle arrest. Clin Sci (Lond). 131(15):1955-1969. doi: 10.1042/CS20170127.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  169. Java A, Apicelli A J, Liszewski M K, Coler-Reilly A, Atkinson JP, Kim AH, Kulkarni HS. (2020) The complement system in COVID-19: friend and foe? JCI Insight. 5(15):e140711. doi: 10.1172/jci.insight.140711.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  170. Noris M, Benigni A, Remuzzi G. The case of complement activation in COVID-19 multiorgan impact. Kidney Int. 98(2):314-322. doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2020.05.013..
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  171. Ip W K, Chan K H, Law H K, Tso G H, Kong E K, et al. (2005) Mannose-binding lectin in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. J Infect Dis. 191(10):1697-704. doi: 10.1086/429631.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  172. Gao T, Hu M, Zhang X, Li H, Zhu L, et al. (2020) Highly pathogenic coronavirus N protein aggravates lung injury by MASP-2-mediated complement over-activation. medRxiv.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  173. Cugno M, Meroni P L, Gualtierotti R, Griffini S, Grovetti E, et al. (2020) Complement activation and endothelial perturbation parallel COVID-19 severity and activity. J Autoimmun. 116:102560. doi: 10.1016/j.jaut.2020.102560.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  174. de Nooijer A H, Grondman I, Janssen N A F, Netea M G, Willems L, et al. (2021) RCI-COVID-19 study group. Complement Activation in the Disease Course of Coronavirus Disease 2019 and Its Effects on Clinical Outcomes. J Infect Dis. 223(2):214-224. doi: 10.10
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  175. Holter J C, Pischke S E, de Boer E, Lind A, Jenum S, et al. (2020) Systemic complement activation is associated with respiratory failure in COVID-19 hospitalized patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 117(40):25018-25025. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2010540117.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  176. Carvelli J, Demaria O, Vély F, Batista L, Chouaki Benmansour N, et al. (2020) Explore COVID-19 IPH group; Explore COVID-19 Marseille Immunopole group, Cordier PY, Le Dault E, Guervilly C, Simeone P, Gainnier M, Morel Y, Ebbo M, Schleinitz N, Vivier E. Ass
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  177. Magro C, Mulvey JJ, Berlin D, Nuovo G, Salvatore S, Harp J, Baxter-Stoltzfus A, Laurence J. (2020) Complement associated microvascular injury and thrombosis in the pathogenesis of severe COVID-19 infection: A report of five cases. Transl Res. 220:1-13. do
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  178. Thurman J M, Holers V M. (2006) The central role of the alternative complement pathway in human disease. J Immunol. 176(3):1305-1310. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.3.1305.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  179. David S, Biancone L, Caserta C, Bussolati B, Cambi V, Camussi G. (1997) Alternative pathway complement activation induces proinflammatory activity in human proximal tubular epithelial cells. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 12(1):51-56. doi: 10.1093/ndt/12.1.51.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  180. Farrar C A, Zhou W, Lin T, Sacks S H. (2006) Local extravascular pool of C3 is a determinant of postischemic acute renal failure. FASEB J. 20(2):217-226. doi: 10.1096/fj.05-4747com.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  181. Thurman J M, Lucia M S, Ljubanovic D, Holers V M. (2005) Acute tubular necrosis is characterized by activation of the alternative pathway of complement. Kidney Int. 67(2):524-530. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.67109.x.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  182. Panitchote A, Mehkri O, Hastings A, Hanane T, Demirjian S, et al. (2019) Factors associated with acute kidney injury in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Ann Intensive Care. 9(1):74. doi: 10.1186/s13613-019-0552-5. Erratum in: Ann Intensive Care. 2019
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  183. Darmon M, Clec'h C, Adrie C, Argaud L, Allaouchiche B, et al. (2014) Acute respiratory distress syndrome and risk of AKI among critically ill patients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 9(8):1347-1353. doi: 10.2215/CJN.08300813.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  184. Doi K, Ishizu T, Fujita T, Noiri E. (2011) Lung injury following acute kidney injury: kidney-lung crosstalk. Clin Exp Nephrol. 15(4):464-470. doi: 10.1007/s10157-011-0459-4.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  185. Husain-Syed F, Birk H W, Seeger W, Ronco C. (2016) A Protective Kidney-Lung Approach to Improve Outcomes in Mechanically Ventilated Patients. Blood Purif. 42(3):214-218. doi: 10.1159/000448471.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  186. Basu R K, Wheeler D S. (2013) Kidney-lung cross-talk and acute kidney injury. Pediatr Nephrol. 28(12):2239-2248. doi: 10.1007/s00467-012-2386-3.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  187. Domenech P, Perez T, Saldarini A, Uad P, Musso C G. (2017) Kidney-lung pathophysiological crosstalk: its characteristics and importance. Int Urol Nephrol. 49(7):1211-1215. doi: 10.1007/s11255-017-1585-z.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  188. Ricksten S E, Bragadottir G, Redfors B. (2013) Renal oxygenation in clinical acute kidney injury. Crit Care. 17(2):221. doi: 10.1186/cc12530.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  189. Husain-Syed F, Slutsky A S, Ronco C. (2016) Lung-Kidney Cross-Talk in the Critically Ill Patient. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 194(4):402-14. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201602-0420CP.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  190. Ahmadian E, Hosseiniyan Khatibi S M, Razi Soofiyani S, Abediazar S, Shoja M M, Ardalan M, Zununi Vahed S. (2021) Covid-19 and kidney injury: Pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms. Rev Med Virol. 31(3):e2176. doi: 10.1002/rmv.2176.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  191. Silvester W. (1997) Mediator removal with CRRT: complement and cytokines. Am J Kidney Dis. 30(5 Suppl 4):S38-43. doi: 10.1016/s0272-6386(97)90541-2.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  192. Tian H, Sun T, Hao D, Wang T, Li Z, Han S, Qi Z, Dong Z, Lv C, Wang X. (2014) The optimal timing of continuous renal replacement therapy for patients with sepsis-induced acute kidney injury. Int Urol. Nephrol. 46(10):2009-14. doi: 10.1007/s11255-014-0747-
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  193. Cha R H, Joh J S, Jeong I, Lee J Y, Shin H S, Kim G, Kim Y. (2015) Critical Care Team of National Medical Center. Renal Complications and Their Prognosis in Korean Patients with Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus from the Central MERS-CoV Design
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  194. Okoh A K, Bishburg E, Grinberg S, Nagarakanti S. (2021) Tocilizumab use in COVID-19-associated pneumonia. J Med Virol. 93(2):1023-1028. doi: 10.1002/jmv.26471.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  195. Choy E H, De Benedetti F, Takeuchi T, Hashizume M, John M R, Kishimoto T. (2020) Translating IL-6 biology into effective treatments. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 16(6):335-345. doi: 10.1038/s41584-020-0419-z.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  196. Ibrahim Y F, Moussa R A, Bayoumi A M A, Ahmed A F. (2020) Tocilizumab attenuates acute lung and kidney injuries and improves survival in a rat model of sepsis via down-regulation of NF-κB/JNK: a possible role of P-glycoprotein. Inflammopharmacology. 28(1)
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  197. Aziz M, Haghbin H, Abu Sitta E, Nawras Y, Fatima R, Sharma S, et al. (2020) Efficacy of tocilizumab in COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Med Virol.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  198. Lindorfer M A, Cook E M, Reis E S, Ricklin D, Risitano A M, Lambris J D, Taylor R P. (2016) Compstatin Cp40 blocks hematin-mediated deposition of C3b fragments on erythrocytes: Implications for treatment of malarial anemia. Clin Immunol. 171:32-35. doi: 1
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  199. van Griensven M, Ricklin D, Denk S, Halbgebauer R, Braun CK, et al. (2019) Protective Effects of the Complement Inhibitor Compstatin CP40 in Hemorrhagic Shock. Shock. 51(1):78-87. doi: 10.1097/SHK.0000000000001127.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  200. Mastellos D C, Reis E S, Biglarnia A R, Waldman M, Quigg R J, et al. (2019) Taming hemodialysis-induced inflammation: Are complement C3 inhibitors a viable option? Clin Immunol. 198:102-105. doi: 10.1016/j.clim.2018.11.010.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  201. Reis E S, Berger N, Wang X, Koutsogiannaki S, Doot R K, et al. (2018) Safety profile after prolonged C3 inhibition. Clin Immunol. 197:96-106. doi: 10.1016/j.clim.2018.09.004.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  202. Mastaglio S, Ruggeri A, Risitano A M, Angelillo P, Yancopoulou D, et al. (2020) The first case of COVID-19 treated with the complement C3 inhibitor AMY-101. Clin Immunol. 215:108450. doi: 10.1016/j.clim.2020.108450.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  203. Zilberman-Itskovich S, Abu-Hamad R, Stark M, Efrati S. (2019) Effect of anti-C5 antibody on recuperation from ischemia/reperfusion-induced acute kidney injury. Ren Fail. 41(1):967-975. doi: 10.1080/0886022X.2019.1677248.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  204. Laurence J, Mulvey J J, Seshadri M, Racanelli A, Harp J, Schenck E J, Zappetti D, Horn E M, Magro C M. (2020) Anti-complement C5 therapy with eculizumab in three cases of critical COVID-19. Clin Immunol. 219:108555. doi: 10.1016/j.clim.2020.108555.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  205. Al-helfawi M A. (2020) Potential Approach for Fighting Against Corona Virus Disease. ASRJETS. 66(1):127-144.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  206. Chen W. (2020) A potential treatment of COVID-19 with TGF-β blockade. Int J Biol Sci. 16(11):1954-1955. doi: 10.7150/ijbs.46891.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  207. Uckun F M TV. (2020) Medical-Scientific Rationale for a Randomized, Placebo Controlled, Phase 2 Study of Trabedersen/OT-101 in COVID-19 Patients with Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure. Anna pul and Cri Car Med. 3:01-09
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  208. Gu Y Y, Zhang M, Cen H, Wu Y F, Lu Z, Lu F, Liu X S, Lan H Y. (2021) Quercetin as a potential treatment for COVID-19-induced acute kidney injury: Based on network pharmacology and molecular docking study. PLoS One. 16(1):e0245209. doi: 10.1371/journal.pon
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  209. Alvarez-Belon L, Sarnowski A, Forni L G. (2020) COVID-19 infection and the kidney. Br J Hosp Med (Lond). 81(10):1-8. doi: 10.12968/hmed.2020.0574.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  210. Askari H, Sanadgol N, Azamezhad A, Tajbakhsh A, Rafiei H, et al. (2021) Kidney diseases and COVID-19 infection: causes and effect, supportive therapeutics and nutritional perspectives. Heliyon, 7(1): e60008  
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  211. Lin Y C, Lai T S, Lin S L, Chen Y M, Chu T S, Tu Y K. (2021) Outcomes of coronavirus 2019 infection in patients with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Therapeutic Advances in Chronic Disease. 12:2040622321998860. doi: 10.1177/
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  212. Fan Zhang and Yumei Liang (2020) Potential risk of the kidney vulnerable to novel coronavirus 2019 infection. The American Journal of Physiology Renal Physiology.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  213. World Health Organization Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Pandemic. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Outbreak Situation. [Online].
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  214. Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, et al. (2020) China Novel Coronavirus Investigating and Research Team. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 382(8):727-733. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001017.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  215. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Kruger N, Herrler T, et al. (2020) SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor Cell 181, 271–280, April 16, 2020 ª 2020 Elsevier Inc. 271-279.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  216. Zhou P, Yang X L, Wang X G, Hu B, Zhang L, et al. (2020) A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 579(7798):270-273. doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  217. Li W, Wong S K, Li F, Kuhn J H, Huang I C, Choe H, Farzan M. (2006) Animal origins of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus: insight from ACE2-S-protein interactions. J Virol. 80(9):4211-4219. doi: 10.1128/JVI.80.9.4211-4219.2006.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  218. Gu J, Gong E, Zhang B, Zheng J, Gao Z, et al. (2005) Multiple organ infection and the pathogenesis of SARS. J Exp Med. 202(3):415-424. doi: 10.1084/jem.20050828.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  219. Pacciarini F, Ghezzi S, Canducci F, Sims A, Sampaolo M, et al. (2008) Persistent replication of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in human tubular kidney cells selects for adaptive mutations in the membrane protein. J Virol. 82(11):5137-5144.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  220. Zou X, Chen K, Zou J, Han P, Hao J, Han Z. (2020) Single-cell RNA-seq data analysis on the receptor ACE2 expression reveals the potential risk of different human organs vulnerable to 2019-nCoV infection. Front Med. 14(2):185-192. doi: 10.1007/s11684-020-0
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  221. Chang D, Lin M, Wei L, Xie L, Zhu G, et al. (2020) Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics of Novel Coronavirus Infections Involving 13 Patients Outside Wuhan, China. JAMA. 323(11):1092-1093. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.1623.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  222. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, et al. (2020) Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 395(10223):497-506. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  223. Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, Zhu F, Liu X, et al. (2020) Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients With 2019 Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA. 17;323(11):1061-1069. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.1585. Erratum in: JAMA. 2021 Mar 16;32
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  224. Choi K W, Chau T N, Tsang O, Tso E, Chiu M C, et al. (2003) Princess Margaret Hospital SARS Study Group. Outcomes and prognostic factors in 267 patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong. Ann Intern Med. 139(9):715-723. doi: 10.7326/0003
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  225. Chu K H, Tsang W K, Tang C S, Lam M F, Lai F M, et al. (2005) Acute renal impairment in coronavirus-associated severe acute respiratory syndrome. Kidney Int. 67(2):698-705. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.67130.x.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  226. Lei H, Li Y, Xiao S, Lin C H, Norris S L, et al. (2018) Routes of transmission of influenza A H1N1, SARS CoV, and norovirus in air cabin: Comparative analyses. Indoor Air. 28(3):394-403. doi: 10.1111/ina.12445. Epub 2018 Jan 6. Erratum in: Indoor Air. 202
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  227. Otter J A, Donskey C, Yezli S, Douthwaite S, Goldenberg S D, Weber D J. (2016) Transmission of SARS and MERS coronaviruses and influenza virus in healthcare settings: the possible role of dry surface contamination. J Hosp Infect. 92(3):235-250. doi: 10.10
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  228. Lynch M R, Tang J. (2013) COVID-19 and Kidney Injury. R I Med J, 103(8):24-28.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  229. Benedetti C, Waldman M, Zaza G, Riella L V, Cravedi P. (2020) COVID-19 and the Kidneys: An Update. Front. Med.,
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  230. George I A, Khoza S. (2021) SARS-CoV-2 Infection and the Kidneys: An Evolving Picture. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 1327: 107-118.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  231. Amann K, Boor P, Wiech T, Singh J, Vonbrunn E, et al. (2021) COVID-19 effects on the kidney. Pathologe. 1–5. doi: 10.1007/s00292-020-00900-x.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  232. Li Q, Cheng Q, Zhao Z, Dai N, Zeng L, et al. (2020) Novel coronavirus infection and acute kidney injury in two renal transplant recipients: a case report. The Journal of International Medical Research, 48(10): 030006052096400 DOI: 10.1177/030006052096400
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  233. Enghard P, Hardenberg J H, Stockmann H, Hinze C, Eckardt K U, Schmidt-Ott K M. (2021) Long-term effects of COVID-19 on kidney function. 1806 – 1807
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  234. Huang C, Huang L, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, et al. (2021) 6-month consequences of COVID-19 in patients discharged from hospital: a cohort study. Lancet. 397(10270):220-232. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32656-8.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  235. Levey A S, Stevens L A, Schmid C H, Zhang Y L, Castro A F, et al. (2009) CKD-EPI (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration). A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med. 150(9):604-12. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-150-9-200905
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  236. Hilderink J M, van der Linden N, Kimenai D M, Litjens E J R, Klinkenberg L J J, et al. (2018) Biological Variation of Creatinine, Cystatin C, and eGFR over 24 Hours. Clin Chem. 64(5):851-860. doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2017.282517.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  237. Srivastava S, Garg I. (2021) Post COVID-19 infection: Long-term effects on liver and kidneys. World J Meta-Anal, 9(3): 220-233 DOI: 10.13105/wjma.v9.i3.220
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  238. Oto, O.A., Ozturk, S., Turgutalp, K. Turgutalp K, Arici M, et al. (2020) Predicting the outcome of COVID-19 infection in kidney transplant recipients. BMC Nephrol. 22(100).
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  239. Le Stang M B, Desenclos J, Flamant M, Chousterman B G, Tabibzadeh N. (2021) The Good Treatment, the Bad Virus, and the Ugly Inflammation: Pathophysiology of Kidney Involvement During COVID-19. Front. Physiol.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar
  240. Singh V, Singh MK. (2021) Acute Kidney Injury in COVID-19: a Brief Review. Indian Journal of Surgery. 1-5. doi: 10.1007/s12262-020-02697-8.
    View at Publisher | View at Google Scholar

Clearly Auctoresonline and particularly Psychology and Mental Health Care Journal is dedicated to improving health care services for individuals and populations. The editorial boards' ability to efficiently recognize and share the global importance of health literacy with a variety of stakeholders. Auctoresonline publishing platform can be used to facilitate of optimal client-based services and should be added to health care professionals' repertoire of evidence-based health care resources.

img

Virginia E. Koenig

Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Intervention The submission and review process was adequate. However I think that the publication total value should have been enlightened in early fases. Thank you for all.

img

Delcio G Silva Junior

Journal of Women Health Care and Issues By the present mail, I want to say thank to you and tour colleagues for facilitating my published article. Specially thank you for the peer review process, support from the editorial office. I appreciate positively the quality of your journal.

img

Ziemlé Clément Méda

Journal of Clinical Research and Reports I would be very delighted to submit my testimonial regarding the reviewer board and the editorial office. The reviewer board were accurate and helpful regarding any modifications for my manuscript. And the editorial office were very helpful and supportive in contacting and monitoring with any update and offering help. It was my pleasure to contribute with your promising Journal and I am looking forward for more collaboration.

img

Mina Sherif Soliman Georgy

We would like to thank the Journal of Thoracic Disease and Cardiothoracic Surgery because of the services they provided us for our articles. The peer-review process was done in a very excellent time manner, and the opinions of the reviewers helped us to improve our manuscript further. The editorial office had an outstanding correspondence with us and guided us in many ways. During a hard time of the pandemic that is affecting every one of us tremendously, the editorial office helped us make everything easier for publishing scientific work. Hope for a more scientific relationship with your Journal.

img

Layla Shojaie

The peer-review process which consisted high quality queries on the paper. I did answer six reviewers’ questions and comments before the paper was accepted. The support from the editorial office is excellent.

img

Sing-yung Wu

Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. I had the experience of publishing a research article recently. The whole process was simple from submission to publication. The reviewers made specific and valuable recommendations and corrections that improved the quality of my publication. I strongly recommend this Journal.

img

Orlando Villarreal

Dr. Katarzyna Byczkowska My testimonial covering: "The peer review process is quick and effective. The support from the editorial office is very professional and friendly. Quality of the Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on cardiology that is useful for other professionals in the field.

img

Katarzyna Byczkowska

Thank you most sincerely, with regard to the support you have given in relation to the reviewing process and the processing of my article entitled "Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of The Prostate Gland: A Review and Update" for publication in your esteemed Journal, Journal of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics". The editorial team has been very supportive.

img

Anthony Kodzo-Grey Venyo

Testimony of Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology: work with your Reviews has been a educational and constructive experience. The editorial office were very helpful and supportive. It was a pleasure to contribute to your Journal.

img

Pedro Marques Gomes

Dr. Bernard Terkimbi Utoo, I am happy to publish my scientific work in Journal of Women Health Care and Issues (JWHCI). The manuscript submission was seamless and peer review process was top notch. I was amazed that 4 reviewers worked on the manuscript which made it a highly technical, standard and excellent quality paper. I appreciate the format and consideration for the APC as well as the speed of publication. It is my pleasure to continue with this scientific relationship with the esteem JWHCI.

img

Bernard Terkimbi Utoo

This is an acknowledgment for peer reviewers, editorial board of Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. They show a lot of consideration for us as publishers for our research article “Evaluation of the different factors associated with side effects of COVID-19 vaccination on medical students, Mutah university, Al-Karak, Jordan”, in a very professional and easy way. This journal is one of outstanding medical journal.

img

Prof Sherif W Mansour

Dear Hao Jiang, to Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing We greatly appreciate the efficient, professional and rapid processing of our paper by your team. If there is anything else we should do, please do not hesitate to let us know. On behalf of my co-authors, we would like to express our great appreciation to editor and reviewers.

img

Hao Jiang

As an author who has recently published in the journal "Brain and Neurological Disorders". I am delighted to provide a testimonial on the peer review process, editorial office support, and the overall quality of the journal. The peer review process at Brain and Neurological Disorders is rigorous and meticulous, ensuring that only high-quality, evidence-based research is published. The reviewers are experts in their fields, and their comments and suggestions were constructive and helped improve the quality of my manuscript. The review process was timely and efficient, with clear communication from the editorial office at each stage. The support from the editorial office was exceptional throughout the entire process. The editorial staff was responsive, professional, and always willing to help. They provided valuable guidance on formatting, structure, and ethical considerations, making the submission process seamless. Moreover, they kept me informed about the status of my manuscript and provided timely updates, which made the process less stressful. The journal Brain and Neurological Disorders is of the highest quality, with a strong focus on publishing cutting-edge research in the field of neurology. The articles published in this journal are well-researched, rigorously peer-reviewed, and written by experts in the field. The journal maintains high standards, ensuring that readers are provided with the most up-to-date and reliable information on brain and neurological disorders. In conclusion, I had a wonderful experience publishing in Brain and Neurological Disorders. The peer review process was thorough, the editorial office provided exceptional support, and the journal's quality is second to none. I would highly recommend this journal to any researcher working in the field of neurology and brain disorders.

img

Dr Shiming Tang

Dear Agrippa Hilda, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, Editorial Coordinator, I trust this message finds you well. I want to extend my appreciation for considering my article for publication in your esteemed journal. I am pleased to provide a testimonial regarding the peer review process and the support received from your editorial office. The peer review process for my paper was carried out in a highly professional and thorough manner. The feedback and comments provided by the authors were constructive and very useful in improving the quality of the manuscript. This rigorous assessment process undoubtedly contributes to the high standards maintained by your journal.

img

Raed Mualem

International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. I strongly recommend to consider submitting your work to this high-quality journal. The support and availability of the Editorial staff is outstanding and the review process was both efficient and rigorous.

img

Andreas Filippaios

Thank you very much for publishing my Research Article titled “Comparing Treatment Outcome Of Allergic Rhinitis Patients After Using Fluticasone Nasal Spray And Nasal Douching" in the Journal of Clinical Otorhinolaryngology. As Medical Professionals we are immensely benefited from study of various informative Articles and Papers published in this high quality Journal. I look forward to enriching my knowledge by regular study of the Journal and contribute my future work in the field of ENT through the Journal for use by the medical fraternity. The support from the Editorial office was excellent and very prompt. I also welcome the comments received from the readers of my Research Article.

img

Dr Suramya Dhamija

Dear Erica Kelsey, Editorial Coordinator of Cancer Research and Cellular Therapeutics Our team is very satisfied with the processing of our paper by your journal. That was fast, efficient, rigorous, but without unnecessary complications. We appreciated the very short time between the submission of the paper and its publication on line on your site.

img

Bruno Chauffert

I am very glad to say that the peer review process is very successful and fast and support from the Editorial Office. Therefore, I would like to continue our scientific relationship for a long time. And I especially thank you for your kindly attention towards my article. Have a good day!

img

Baheci Selen

"We recently published an article entitled “Influence of beta-Cyclodextrins upon the Degradation of Carbofuran Derivatives under Alkaline Conditions" in the Journal of “Pesticides and Biofertilizers” to show that the cyclodextrins protect the carbamates increasing their half-life time in the presence of basic conditions This will be very helpful to understand carbofuran behaviour in the analytical, agro-environmental and food areas. We greatly appreciated the interaction with the editor and the editorial team; we were particularly well accompanied during the course of the revision process, since all various steps towards publication were short and without delay".

img

Jesus Simal-Gandara

I would like to express my gratitude towards you process of article review and submission. I found this to be very fair and expedient. Your follow up has been excellent. I have many publications in national and international journal and your process has been one of the best so far. Keep up the great work.

img

Douglas Miyazaki

We are grateful for this opportunity to provide a glowing recommendation to the Journal of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. We found that the editorial team were very supportive, helpful, kept us abreast of timelines and over all very professional in nature. The peer review process was rigorous, efficient and constructive that really enhanced our article submission. The experience with this journal remains one of our best ever and we look forward to providing future submissions in the near future.

img

Dr Griffith

I am very pleased to serve as EBM of the journal, I hope many years of my experience in stem cells can help the journal from one way or another. As we know, stem cells hold great potential for regenerative medicine, which are mostly used to promote the repair response of diseased, dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives. I think Stem Cell Research and Therapeutics International is a great platform to publish and share the understanding towards the biology and translational or clinical application of stem cells.

img

Dr Tong Ming Liu

I would like to give my testimony in the support I have got by the peer review process and to support the editorial office where they were of asset to support young author like me to be encouraged to publish their work in your respected journal and globalize and share knowledge across the globe. I really give my great gratitude to your journal and the peer review including the editorial office.

img

Husain Taha Radhi

I am delighted to publish our manuscript entitled "A Perspective on Cocaine Induced Stroke - Its Mechanisms and Management" in the Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal are excellent. The manuscripts published are of high quality and of excellent scientific value. I recommend this journal very much to colleagues.

img

S Munshi

Dr.Tania Muñoz, My experience as researcher and author of a review article in The Journal Clinical Cardiology and Interventions has been very enriching and stimulating. The editorial team is excellent, performs its work with absolute responsibility and delivery. They are proactive, dynamic and receptive to all proposals. Supporting at all times the vast universe of authors who choose them as an option for publication. The team of review specialists, members of the editorial board, are brilliant professionals, with remarkable performance in medical research and scientific methodology. Together they form a frontline team that consolidates the JCCI as a magnificent option for the publication and review of high-level medical articles and broad collective interest. I am honored to be able to share my review article and open to receive all your comments.

img

Tania Munoz

“The peer review process of JPMHC is quick and effective. Authors are benefited by good and professional reviewers with huge experience in the field of psychology and mental health. The support from the editorial office is very professional. People to contact to are friendly and happy to help and assist any query authors might have. Quality of the Journal is scientific and publishes ground-breaking research on mental health that is useful for other professionals in the field”.

img

George Varvatsoulias

Dear editorial department: On behalf of our team, I hereby certify the reliability and superiority of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews in the peer review process, editorial support, and journal quality. Firstly, the peer review process of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is rigorous, fair, transparent, fast, and of high quality. The editorial department invites experts from relevant fields as anonymous reviewers to review all submitted manuscripts. These experts have rich academic backgrounds and experience, and can accurately evaluate the academic quality, originality, and suitability of manuscripts. The editorial department is committed to ensuring the rigor of the peer review process, while also making every effort to ensure a fast review cycle to meet the needs of authors and the academic community. Secondly, the editorial team of the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is composed of a group of senior scholars and professionals with rich experience and professional knowledge in related fields. The editorial department is committed to assisting authors in improving their manuscripts, ensuring their academic accuracy, clarity, and completeness. Editors actively collaborate with authors, providing useful suggestions and feedback to promote the improvement and development of the manuscript. We believe that the support of the editorial department is one of the key factors in ensuring the quality of the journal. Finally, the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is renowned for its high- quality articles and strict academic standards. The editorial department is committed to publishing innovative and academically valuable research results to promote the development and progress of related fields. The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is reasonably priced and ensures excellent service and quality ratio, allowing authors to obtain high-level academic publishing opportunities in an affordable manner. I hereby solemnly declare that the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews has a high level of credibility and superiority in terms of peer review process, editorial support, reasonable fees, and journal quality. Sincerely, Rui Tao.

img

Rui Tao

Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions I testity the covering of the peer review process, support from the editorial office, and quality of the journal.

img

Khurram Arshad

Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, we deeply appreciate the interest shown in our work and its publication. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you. The peer review process, as well as the support provided by the editorial office, have been exceptional, and the quality of the journal is very high, which was a determining factor in our decision to publish with you.

img

Gomez Barriga Maria Dolores

The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews journal clinically in the future time.

img

Lin Shaw Chin

Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude for the trust placed in our team for the publication in your journal. It has been a true pleasure to collaborate with you on this project. I am pleased to inform you that both the peer review process and the attention from the editorial coordination have been excellent. Your team has worked with dedication and professionalism to ensure that your publication meets the highest standards of quality. We are confident that this collaboration will result in mutual success, and we are eager to see the fruits of this shared effort.

img

Maria Dolores Gomez Barriga

Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, I hope this message finds you well. I want to express my utmost gratitude for your excellent work and for the dedication and speed in the publication process of my article titled "Navigating Innovation: Qualitative Insights on Using Technology for Health Education in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients." I am very satisfied with the peer review process, the support from the editorial office, and the quality of the journal. I hope we can maintain our scientific relationship in the long term.

img

Dr Maria Dolores Gomez Barriga

Dear Monica Gissare, - Editorial Coordinator of Nutrition and Food Processing. ¨My testimony with you is truly professional, with a positive response regarding the follow-up of the article and its review, you took into account my qualities and the importance of the topic¨.

img

Dr Maria Regina Penchyna Nieto

Dear Dr. Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator 0f Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, The review process for the article “The Handling of Anti-aggregants and Anticoagulants in the Oncologic Heart Patient Submitted to Surgery” was extremely rigorous and detailed. From the initial submission to the final acceptance, the editorial team at the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” demonstrated a high level of professionalism and dedication. The reviewers provided constructive and detailed feedback, which was essential for improving the quality of our work. Communication was always clear and efficient, ensuring that all our questions were promptly addressed. The quality of the “Journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions” is undeniable. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access publication dedicated exclusively to disseminating high-quality research in the field of clinical cardiology and cardiovascular interventions. The journal's impact factor is currently under evaluation, and it is indexed in reputable databases, which further reinforces its credibility and relevance in the scientific field. I highly recommend this journal to researchers looking for a reputable platform to publish their studies.

img

Dr Marcelo Flavio Gomes Jardim Filho

Dear Editorial Coordinator of the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing! "I would like to thank the Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing for including and publishing my article. The peer review process was very quick, movement and precise. The Editorial Board has done an extremely conscientious job with much help, valuable comments and advices. I find the journal very valuable from a professional point of view, thank you very much for allowing me to be part of it and I would like to participate in the future!”

img

Zsuzsanna Bene

Dealing with The Journal of Neurology and Neurological Surgery was very smooth and comprehensive. The office staff took time to address my needs and the response from editors and the office was prompt and fair. I certainly hope to publish with this journal again.Their professionalism is apparent and more than satisfactory. Susan Weiner

img

Dr Susan Weiner

My Testimonial Covering as fellowing: Lin-Show Chin. The peer reviewers process is quick and effective, the supports from editorial office is excellent, the quality of journal is high. I would like to collabroate with Internatioanl journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.

img

Lin-Show Chin

My experience publishing in Psychology and Mental Health Care was exceptional. The peer review process was rigorous and constructive, with reviewers providing valuable insights that helped enhance the quality of our work. The editorial team was highly supportive and responsive, making the submission process smooth and efficient. The journal's commitment to high standards and academic rigor makes it a respected platform for quality research. I am grateful for the opportunity to publish in such a reputable journal.

img

Sonila Qirko

My experience publishing in International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews was exceptional. I Come forth to Provide a Testimonial Covering the Peer Review Process and the editorial office for the Professional and Impartial Evaluation of the Manuscript.

img

Luiz Sellmann

I would like to offer my testimony in the support. I have received through the peer review process and support the editorial office where they are to support young authors like me, encourage them to publish their work in your esteemed journals, and globalize and share knowledge globally. I really appreciate your journal, peer review, and editorial office.

img

Zhao Jia

Dear Agrippa Hilda- Editorial Coordinator of Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery, "The peer review process was very quick and of high quality, which can also be seen in the articles in the journal. The collaboration with the editorial office was very good."

img

Thomas Urban

I would like to express my sincere gratitude for the support and efficiency provided by the editorial office throughout the publication process of my article, “Delayed Vulvar Metastases from Rectal Carcinoma: A Case Report.” I greatly appreciate the assistance and guidance I received from your team, which made the entire process smooth and efficient. The peer review process was thorough and constructive, contributing to the overall quality of the final article. I am very grateful for the high level of professionalism and commitment shown by the editorial staff, and I look forward to maintaining a long-term collaboration with the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews.

img

Cristina Berriozabal

To Dear Erin Aust, I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation for the opportunity to have my work published in this esteemed journal. The entire publication process was smooth and well-organized, and I am extremely satisfied with the final result. The Editorial Team demonstrated the utmost professionalism, providing prompt and insightful feedback throughout the review process. Their clear communication and constructive suggestions were invaluable in enhancing my manuscript, and their meticulous attention to detail and dedication to quality are truly commendable. Additionally, the support from the Editorial Office was exceptional. From the initial submission to the final publication, I was guided through every step of the process with great care and professionalism. The team's responsiveness and assistance made the entire experience both easy and stress-free. I am also deeply impressed by the quality and reputation of the journal. It is an honor to have my research featured in such a respected publication, and I am confident that it will make a meaningful contribution to the field.

img

Dr Tewodros Kassahun Tarekegn

"I am grateful for the opportunity of contributing to [International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews] and for the rigorous review process that enhances the quality of research published in your esteemed journal. I sincerely appreciate the time and effort of your team who have dedicatedly helped me in improvising changes and modifying my manuscript. The insightful comments and constructive feedback provided have been invaluable in refining and strengthening my work".

img

Dr Shweta Tiwari

I thank the ‘Journal of Clinical Research and Reports’ for accepting this article for publication. This is a rigorously peer reviewed journal which is on all major global scientific data bases. I note the review process was prompt, thorough and professionally critical. It gave us an insight into a number of important scientific/statistical issues. The review prompted us to review the relevant literature again and look at the limitations of the study. The peer reviewers were open, clear in the instructions and the editorial team was very prompt in their communication. This journal certainly publishes quality research articles. I would recommend the journal for any future publications.

img

Dr Farooq Wandroo

Dear Jessica Magne, with gratitude for the joint work. Fast process of receiving and processing the submitted scientific materials in “Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions”. High level of competence of the editors with clear and correct recommendations and ideas for enriching the article.

img

Dr Anyuta Ivanova

We found the peer review process quick and positive in its input. The support from the editorial officer has been very agile, always with the intention of improving the article and taking into account our subsequent corrections.

img

Dr David Vinyes

My article, titled 'No Way Out of the Smartphone Epidemic Without Considering the Insights of Brain Research,' has been republished in the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. The review process was seamless and professional, with the editors being both friendly and supportive. I am deeply grateful for their efforts.

img

Gertraud Teuchert-Noodt

To Dear Erin Aust – Editorial Coordinator of Journal of General Medicine and Clinical Practice! I declare that I am absolutely satisfied with your work carried out with great competence in following the manuscript during the various stages from its receipt, during the revision process to the final acceptance for publication. Thank Prof. Elvira Farina

img

Dr Elvira Farina

Dear Jessica, and the super professional team of the ‘Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions’ I am sincerely grateful to the coordinated work of the journal team for the no problem with the submission of my manuscript: “Cardiometabolic Disorders in A Pregnant Woman with Severe Preeclampsia on the Background of Morbid Obesity (Case Report).” The review process by 5 experts was fast, and the comments were professional, which made it more specific and academic, and the process of publication and presentation of the article was excellent. I recommend that my colleagues publish articles in this journal, and I am interested in further scientific cooperation. Sincerely and best wishes, Dr. Oleg Golyanovskiy.

img

Dr Oleg Golyanovski

Dear Ashley Rosa, Editorial Coordinator of the journal - Psychology and Mental Health Care. " The process of obtaining publication of my article in the Psychology and Mental Health Journal was positive in all areas. The peer review process resulted in a number of valuable comments, the editorial process was collaborative and timely, and the quality of this journal has been quickly noticed, resulting in alternative journals contacting me to publish with them." Warm regards, Susan Anne Smith, PhD. Australian Breastfeeding Association.

img

Dr Susan Anne Smith

Dear Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator, Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, Auctores Publishing LLC. I appreciate the journal (JCCI) editorial office support, the entire team leads were always ready to help, not only on technical front but also on thorough process. Also, I should thank dear reviewers’ attention to detail and creative approach to teach me and bring new insights by their comments. Surely, more discussions and introduction of other hemodynamic devices would provide better prevention and management of shock states. Your efforts and dedication in presenting educational materials in this journal are commendable. Best wishes from, Farahnaz Fallahian.

img

Dr Farahnaz Fallahian

Dear Maria Emerson, Editorial Coordinator, International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews, Auctores Publishing LLC. I am delighted to have published our manuscript, "Acute Colonic Pseudo-Obstruction (ACPO): A rare but serious complication following caesarean section." I want to thank the editorial team, especially Maria Emerson, for their prompt review of the manuscript, quick responses to queries, and overall support. Yours sincerely Dr. Victor Olagundoye.

img

Dr Victor Olagundoye

Dear Ashley Rosa, Editorial Coordinator, International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. Many thanks for publishing this manuscript after I lost confidence the editors were most helpful, more than other journals Best wishes from, Susan Anne Smith, PhD. Australian Breastfeeding Association.

img

Dr Susan Anne Smith

Dear Agrippa Hilda, Editorial Coordinator, Journal of Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. The entire process including article submission, review, revision, and publication was extremely easy. The journal editor was prompt and helpful, and the reviewers contributed to the quality of the paper. Thank you so much! Eric Nussbaum, MD

img

Dr Eric S Nussbaum

Dr Hala Al Shaikh This is to acknowledge that the peer review process for the article ’ A Novel Gnrh1 Gene Mutation in Four Omani Male Siblings, Presentation and Management ’ sent to the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews was quick and smooth. The editorial office was prompt with easy communication.

img

Hala Al Shaikh

Dear Erin Aust, Editorial Coordinator, Journal of General Medicine and Clinical Practice. We are pleased to share our experience with the “Journal of General Medicine and Clinical Practice”, following the successful publication of our article. The peer review process was thorough and constructive, helping to improve the clarity and quality of the manuscript. We are especially thankful to Ms. Erin Aust, the Editorial Coordinator, for her prompt communication and continuous support throughout the process. Her professionalism ensured a smooth and efficient publication experience. The journal upholds high editorial standards, and we highly recommend it to fellow researchers seeking a credible platform for their work. Best wishes By, Dr. Rakhi Mishra.

img

Dr Rakhi Mishra

Dear Jessica Magne, Editorial Coordinator, Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, Auctores Publishing LLC. The peer review process of the journal of Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions was excellent and fast, as was the support of the editorial office and the quality of the journal. Kind regards Walter F. Riesen Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Walter F. Riesen.

img

Dr Walter F Riesen

Dear Ashley Rosa, Editorial Coordinator, International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews, Auctores Publishing LLC. Thank you for publishing our article, Exploring Clozapine's Efficacy in Managing Aggression: A Multiple Single-Case Study in Forensic Psychiatry in the international journal of clinical case reports and reviews. We found the peer review process very professional and efficient. The comments were constructive, and the whole process was efficient. On behalf of the co-authors, I would like to thank you for publishing this article. With regards, Dr. Jelle R. Lettinga.

img

Dr Jelle Lettinga

Dear Clarissa Eric, Editorial Coordinator, Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Studies, I would like to express my deep admiration for the exceptional professionalism demonstrated by your journal. I am thoroughly impressed by the speed of the editorial process, the substantive and insightful reviews, and the meticulous preparation of the manuscript for publication. Additionally, I greatly appreciate the courteous and immediate responses from your editorial office to all my inquiries. Best Regards, Dariusz Ziora

img

Dariusz Ziora

Dear Chrystine Mejia, Editorial Coordinator, Journal of Neurodegeneration and Neurorehabilitation, Auctores Publishing LLC, We would like to thank the editorial team for the smooth and high-quality communication leading up to the publication of our article in the Journal of Neurodegeneration and Neurorehabilitation. The reviewers have extensive knowledge in the field, and their relevant questions helped to add value to our publication. Kind regards, Dr. Ravi Shrivastava.

img

Dr Ravi Shrivastava

Dear Clarissa Eric, Editorial Coordinator, Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Studies, Auctores Publishing LLC, USA Office: +1-(302)-520-2644. I would like to express my sincere appreciation for the efficient and professional handling of my case report by the ‘Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Studies’. The peer review process was not only fast but also highly constructive—the reviewers’ comments were clear, relevant, and greatly helped me improve the quality and clarity of my manuscript. I also received excellent support from the editorial office throughout the process. Communication was smooth and timely, and I felt well guided at every stage, from submission to publication. The overall quality and rigor of the journal are truly commendable. I am pleased to have published my work with Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Studies, and I look forward to future opportunities for collaboration. Sincerely, Aline Tollet, UCLouvain.

img

Dr Aline Tollet

Dear Ms. Mayra Duenas, Editorial Coordinator, International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. “The International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews represented the “ideal house” to share with the research community a first experience with the use of the Simeox device for speech rehabilitation. High scientific reputation and attractive website communication were first determinants for the selection of this Journal, and the following submission process exceeded expectations: fast but highly professional peer review, great support by the editorial office, elegant graphic layout. Exactly what a dynamic research team - also composed by allied professionals - needs!" From, Chiara Beccaluva, PT - Italy.

img

Dr Chiara Giuseppina Beccaluva

Dear Maria Emerson, Editorial Coordinator, we have deeply appreciated the professionalism demonstrated by the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. The reviewers have extensive knowledge of our field and have been very efficient and fast in supporting the process. I am really looking forward to further collaboration. Thanks. Best regards, Dr. Claudio Ligresti

img

Dr Claudio Ligresti

Dear Chrystine Mejia, Editorial Coordinator, Journal of Neurodegeneration and Neurorehabilitation. “The peer review process was efficient and constructive, and the editorial office provided excellent communication and support throughout. The journal ensures scientific rigor and high editorial standards, while also offering a smooth and timely publication process. We sincerely appreciate the work of the editorial team in facilitating the dissemination of innovative approaches such as the Bonori Method.” Best regards, Dr. Matteo Bonori.

img

Dr Matteo Bonori

I recommend without hesitation submitting relevant papers on medical decision making to the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews. I am very grateful to the editorial staff. Maria Emerson was a pleasure to communicate with. The time from submission to publication was an extremely short 3 weeks. The editorial staff submitted the paper to three reviewers. Two of the reviewers commented positively on the value of publishing the paper. The editorial staff quickly recognized the third reviewer’s comments as an unjust attempt to reject the paper. I revised the paper as recommended by the first two reviewers.

img

Edouard Kujawski

Dear Maria Emerson, Editorial Coordinator, Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. Thank you for publishing our case report: "Clinical Case of Effective Fetal Stem Cells Treatment in a Patient with Autism Spectrum Disorder" within the "Journal of Clinical Research and Reports" being submitted by the team of EmCell doctors from Kyiv, Ukraine. We much appreciate a professional and transparent peer-review process from Auctores. All research Doctors are so grateful to your Editorial Office and Auctores Publishing support! I amiably wish our article publication maintained a top quality of your International Scientific Journal. My best wishes for a prosperity of the Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. Hope our scientific relationship and cooperation will remain long lasting. Thank you very much indeed. Kind regards, Dr. Andriy Sinelnyk Cell Therapy Center EmCell

img

Dr Andriy Sinelnyk

Dear Editorial Team, Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions. It was truly a rewarding experience to work with the journal “Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions”. The peer review process was insightful and encouraging, helping us refine our work to a higher standard. The editorial office offered exceptional support with prompt and thoughtful communication. I highly value the journal’s role in promoting scientific advancement and am honored to be part of it. Best regards, Meng-Jou Lee, MD, Department of Anesthesiology, National Taiwan University Hospital.

img

Dr Meng-JouLe

Dear Editorial Team, Journal-Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions, “Publishing my article with Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions has been a highly positive experience. The peer-review process was rigorous yet supportive, offering valuable feedback that strengthened my work. The editorial team demonstrated exceptional professionalism, prompt communication, and a genuine commitment to maintaining the highest scientific standards. I am very pleased with the publication quality and proud to be associated with such a reputable journal.” Warm regards, Dr. Mahmoud Kamal Moustafa Ahmed

img

Mahmoud Kamal Moustafa Ahmed

Dear Maria Emerson, Editorial Coordinator of ‘International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews’, I appreciate the opportunity to publish my article with your journal. The editorial office provided clear communication during the submission and review process, and I found the overall experience professional and constructive. Best regards, Elena Salvatore.

img

Dr Elena Salvatore

Dear Mayra Duenas, Editorial Coordinator of ‘International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews Herewith I confirm an optimal peer review process and a great support of the editorial office of the present journal

img

Christoph Maurer

Dear Editorial Team, Clinical Cardiology and Cardiovascular Interventions. I am really grateful for the peers review; their feedback gave me the opportunity to reflect on the message and impact of my work and to ameliorate the article. The editors did a great job in addition by encouraging me to continue with the process of publishing.

img

Baciulescu Laura

Dear Cecilia Lilly, Editorial Coordinator, Endocrinology and Disorders, Thank you so much for your quick response regarding reviewing and all process till publishing our manuscript entitled: Prevalence of Pre-Diabetes and its Associated Risk Factors Among Nile College Students, Sudan. Best regards, Dr Mamoun Magzoub.

img

Dr Mamoun Magzoub

International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews is a high quality journal that has a clear and concise submission process. The peer review process was comprehensive and constructive. Support from the editorial office was excellent, since the administrative staff were responsive. The journal provides a fast and timely publication timeline.

img

Joel Yat Seng Wong

Dear Maria Emerson, Editorial Coordinator of International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews, What distinguishes International Journal of Clinical Case Report and Review is not only the scientific rigor of its publications, but the intellectual climate in which research is evaluated. The submission process is refreshingly free of unnecessary formal barriers and bureaucratic rituals that often complicate academic publishing without adding real value. The peer-review system is demanding yet constructive, guided by genuine scientific dialogue rather than hierarchical or authoritarian attitudes. Reviewers act as collaborators in improving the manuscript, not as gatekeepers imposing arbitrary standards. This journal offers a rare balance: high methodological standards combined with a respectful, transparent, and supportive editorial approach. In an era where publishing can feel more burdensome than research itself, this platform restores the original purpose of peer review — to refine ideas, not to obstruct them Prof. Perlat Kapisyzi, FCCP PULMONOLOGIST AND THORACIC IMAGING.

img

Dr Perlat Kapisyzi

Dear Mayra Duenas, Editorial Coordinator of the journal IJCCR, I write here a little on my experience as an author submitting to the International Journal of Clinical Case Reports and Reviews (IJCCR). This was my first submission to IJCCR and my manuscript was inherently an outsider’s effort. It attempted to broadly identify and then make some sense of life’s under-appreciated mysteries. I initially had responded to a request for possible submissions. I then contacted IJCCR with a tentative topic for a manuscript. They quickly got back with an approval for the submission, but with a particular requirement that it be medically relevant. I then put together a manuscript and submitted it. After the usual back-and-forth over forms and formality, the manuscript was sent off for reviews. Within 2 weeks I got back 4 reviews which were both helpful and also surprising. Surprising in that the topic was somewhat foreign to medical literature. My subsequent updates in response to the reviewer comments went smoothly and in short order I had a series of proofs to evaluate. All in all, the whole publication process seemed outstanding. It was both helpful in terms of the paper’s content and also in terms of its efficient and friendly communications. Thank you all very much. Sincerely, Ted Christopher, Rochester, NY.

img

Dr Ted Christopher

Dear Grace Pierce, Editorial Coordinator of the journal IJCCR, I had a very positive experience with Auctores - Journal throughout the publication process. The Editorial Team was highly responsive, professional, and supportive at every stage. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the Editor: Grace Pierce, for her guidance and assistance. The peer-review process was smooth and constructive, helping improve the quality of my work. I would gladly recommend Auctores Journal to fellow researchers and authors. Dr. SABITA SINHA, Medical Oncologist, MD (Electro Homeopathy).

img

Dr SABITA SINHA

Dear Maria Emerson, Editorial Coordinator of - Journal of Clinical Research and Reports. ''I am pleased to provide this testimonial following the publication of our recent case report in this journal. The peer review process was rigorous, constructive, thorough, and conducted in a timely manner. The reviewers’ comments were thoughtful, detailed, and highly constructive, contributing substantially to the refinement, clarity, and scientific robustness of our manuscript. The process was conducted with professionalism and academic integrity throughout. The support provided by the editorial office was exemplary. Communication was consistently prompt, clear, and courteous at all stages of the submission and publication process. The editorial team demonstrated a high level of organization and responsiveness, ensuring that all queries were addressed efficiently and that the process remained transparent and well-coordinated. The overall quality of the journal is reflected in its strong editorial standards, commitment to scientific excellence, and dedication to publishing clinically meaningful research. It has been a privilege to publish our work in this journal, and we would welcome the opportunity to contribute further in the future.'' Best wishes from, Dr. Efstratios Trogkanis, Cardiologist.

img

Dr Efstratios Troganis

Dear Reader: We have published several articles in the Auctores Publishing, LLC, journal, Clinical Medical Reviews and Reports in recent years (CMRR). This is an ‘open access’ journal and the following are our observations. From the initial invitation to submit an article, to the final edits of galley proofs, we have found CMRR personnel to be professional, responsive, rapid and thorough. This entire process begins with Catherine Mitchell, Editorial Coordinator. She is simply outstanding, and, I believe, unparalleled in her capacity. I cannot imagine a more responsive and dedicated Editorial Coordinator. As I read the dates and timing of her correspondence with us, it seems that she never sleeps. I hope Auctores Publishing, LLC, appreciates her efforts as much as these authors do. Thank you to Auctores Publishing, LLC, to the Editorial Staff/Board, and to Catherine Mitchell from a grateful author(s).

img

Dr Gary Merrill